Post-classical history

Notes

Chapter 1

1. DRGR, I.4, p. 9; EH, V, vol. 3, p. 160; William of Malmesbury, ed. T. Hardy, London, 1840, vol. 2, III.262, p. 439; HS, col. 745; AK, I.10, p. 35; Otto of Freising, ‘Two Cities’, MGH SRGius, 45, VI.33, p. 301.

2. F. Chalandon, Histoire de la Domination Normande en Italie et en Sicile, vol. 1, Paris, 1907, pp. 1–41; G. Loud, The Age of Robert Guiscard, Harlow, 2000, pp. 29–59.

3. Chronicon Salernitanum, Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis, Studia Latina Stockholmiensia, 3, ed. U. Westerbergh, Stockholm, 1959, 38, p. 39: ‘lingua Todesca, quod olim Longobardi loquebantur’; LP, ad an. 966, p. 55: ‘et sunt anni 400 ex quo intraverunt Longobardi in Italiam’; C. Wickham, Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society 400–1000, Michigan, 1981, p. 157; P. Brown, ‘The Gesta Roberti Wiscardi: A “Byzantine” History?’, JMH, 37:2, 2011, pp. 162–179, at 166–7.

4. See above, note 2.

5. As above.

6. The Lombard Laws, trans. K.F. Drew, Pennsylvania, 1973, p. 226; MGH LL, 4, p. 222; Chronicon Salernitanum, ed. U. Westerberg, 154, p. 161: ‘populus necnon et proceres … Proceres, id est principes et maiores’, cf. AT, III.32, p. 77: ‘proceres [‘barons’] … Principi’; Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 1, pp. 34–5; B. Kreutz, Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries, Pennsylvania, 1991, p. 97; N. Christie, The Lombards, Oxford, 1995, p. 118; Wickham, Early Medieval Italy, pp. 131–2.

7. YN, III.28, p. 144: ‘li chevalier de Salerne’, 46, p. 163: ‘fionde et arc’; C. Cahen, Le Régime Féodal de l’Italie Normande, Paris, 1940, pp. 65, 72–3; Loud, ‘The Church, Warfare and Military Obligation in Norman Italy’, Studies in Church History, 20, 1983, pp. 31–45.

8. ABC, ad an. 1036, p. 149: ‘Johannes Ycanato [= from the tagma ton Ikanaton], 1040, p. 149; ABa, ad an. 1040, p. 54; LP, ad an. 1040, p. 58; YN, II.24, p. 97: ‘tenement’; Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 1, p. 34–5; Codice Diplomatico Barese, vol. 4, 32, pp. 67–8; H-J. Kühn, Die Byzantinische Armee im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert: Studien zur Organisation er Tagmata, Wien, 1991, p. 119; J-M. Martin, Le Pouille du VI^e au XII^e Siècle, Rome, 1993, pp. 702–3, 712; V. von Falkenhausen, ‘Between Two Empires: Byzantine Italy in the reign of Basil II’, in Byzantium in the year 1000, ed. P. Magdalino, Leiden, 2003, pp. 152–3.

9. Vita S. Nili Junioris, PG, 120, col. 105: ‘χελάνδια’; DRGR, I.7, pp. 10–1, II.8, p. 32; YN, V.11, p. 234, 13, pp. 234–5, 15, pp. 235–6, 17, p. 237; ABC, ad an. 1064, p. 152: ‘Chelandie’.

10. NP, IV.1, p. 38: ‘ἄνδρας πεντήκοντα’; NO, 61.1, p. 116; DRGR, I.34, p. 23, cf. IV.1, p. 85: ‘in Scyllacensi loco, qui Rocca Asini dicitur’; LP, ad an. 1058, p. 59; George Kedrenos, CSHB, vol. 2, pp. 721–2; J.B. Bury, The Imperial Administrative System in the Ninth Century, London, 1911, pp. 58–9; A. Guillou, ‘La Tourma des Salines dans la Thème de Calabre (XI^e Siècle)’, Mélanges de l’Ecole française de Rome, Moyen Age, 83, Rome, 1971, pp. 9–29, at 20 (cf. J. Haldon, Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204, London, 1999, p. 114) & with C. Rognoni, ‘Une nouvelle foundation monastique dans la thème de Calabre’, Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 84–5, 1991–2, pp. 423–9; Kühn, Die Byzantinische Armee im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert, pp. 86, 101; E. d’Agostino, Da Locri a Gerace: Storia di una diocesi della Calabria bizantina dalle origini al 1480, Catanzaro, 2005, pp. 98–9.

11. SI, Nik. II, 15, p. 270; Kreutz, Before the Normans, p. 134; Wickham, Early Medieval Italy, p. 163; von Falkenhausen, ‘Rocca Niceforo: un castello normanno in Calabria’, Bollettino della Badi Greca di Grottaferrata, 54, 2000, pp. 227–37; K. Molin, Unknown Crusader Castles, London, 2001, pp. 96–103.

12. E.g. LD, IV.9, p. 68; A. Cameron, The Last Pagans of Rome, Oxford, 2010, pp. 16–22.

13. Maurice’s Strategikon: Handbook of Byzantine Military Strategy, ed. & trans. G. Dennis, Pennsylvania, 1984, I.2, pp. 12–3; NP, III.1.4–10, pp. 34–8; LD, I.8, p. 15: ‘δοράτων ἀκοντιζομένων’ (‘spears were thrown’), VIII.4, pp. 133–4: ‘προβαλόντες τοὺς ἄκοντας … σφοδρῶς τοῖς μύωψσι τοὺς ἵππους κεντρίσαντες’; P. Kolias, Byzantinische Waffen. Ein Beitrag zur byzantinischen Waffenkunde von den Anfängen bis zur lateinischen Eroberung, Vienna, 1988, p. 192; Haldon, Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, pp. 112–3, 117–8, 123–5, 223–4; J. Shepard, ‘The Uses of the Franks in Eleventh-Century Byzantium’, ANS, 15, 1993, p. 293, esp. notes 75 & 79 (cf. Bryennios, CFHB, 9, IV.4, pp. 265–7; AK, X.3, p. 289).

14. W. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford, 1997, p. 595.

15. Michael Attaleiates, CSHB, pp. 148, 170–1; SI, Con IX, 3, p. 425, 8, p. 440, 22, pp. 467–8; YN, I.9, pp. 16–7; ABC, ad an. 1048, p. 151; DRGR, 1.7, p. 10, II.43, p. 51; GRW, I.204, p. 110, II.38–41, p. 134; Shepard, ‘Uses of the Franks’, pp. 275–305.

16. WT, 1:1, XIV.24, p. 651: ‘potentissimum orbis terrae principem’, XV.19, p. 689: ‘quas nemo regum terrae sustinere posse videretur’, 1:2, XX.13, p. 961; J.W. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 1081–1180, Leiden, 2002, p. 163: ‘troops that were paid regularly, or resided within the empire, can hardly be called mercenary … regardless of their national origin or how their pay was provided’.

17. LD, V.4, p. 81: ‘τῆς μεγάλης Ἀντιοχείας’; AK, VI.9, pp. 186–7; IQ, p. 54, cf. Ibn al-Aṯīr, in Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrielli, California, 1984, p. 19; H.S. Fink, ‘The Foundation of the Latin States, 1099–1118’, in A History of the Crusades, ed. M.W. Baldwin, K.M. Setton et al., 6 vols, i, pp. 368–409, at 370–3; The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. B. Lewis et al., Cambridge, 1970, pp. 195, 236; Kühn, Die Byzantinische Armee im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert, p. 180.

18. Fink, ‘The Foundation of the Latin States, 1099–1118’, p. 371; C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, Edinburgh, 1999, p. 48; GF, IX.21: ‘qui propulerunt omnes parentes nostros a Romania, et Antiochia urbe regia quae est honorabile caput totius Syriae?’.

19. GT, CLIII-IV, pp. 713–4: ‘augere militarem’ (714); WC, I.7, pp. 94–5: ‘domesticis’ (94 = Roger of Sal.), ‘mos ejusdem curiae exigit’ (95), II.1, p. 100: ‘baronum’, 2–3, pp. 103–4: ‘familia domestica comitatus’ (103 = Alan of al-Atārib), ‘familiaribus’ (104 = Roger’s chamberlain) … et famuli’ (Roger), 5, p. 108: ‘comitatus’ (Roger); C. Cahen, La Syrie du Nord à l’époque des croisades et la principauté franque d’Antioche, Paris, 1940, pp. 527–46; Loud, ‘How “Norman” was the Norman conquest of southern Italy?’, Nottingham Medieval Studies, 25, 1981, pp. 13–34; A. Murray, ‘How Norman was the Principality of Antioch?’, in Family Trees and the Roots of Politics: The Prosopography of Britain and France from the Tenth to the Twelfth Century, ed. K. S. B. Keats-Rohan, Woodbridge, 1997, pp. 349–59.

20. Kamāl ad-Din, RHC OR, 3, p. 617: ‘de Francs, d’Arméniens et d’autres troupes’; Matthew of Edessa, RHC ARM, I, p. 123: ‘cent cavaliers franks, cinq cents cavaliers arméniens et quatre cents fantassins’; WC, II.2–4, pp. 102–4, 4, p. 107: ‘triplici cohorte’, 6, p. 110: ‘miles probatissimus’; Albert of Aachen, RHC OCC, 4, IX.47, p. 620; UM, pp. 85, 139–40.

21. GF, I.3, p. 6, 4, p. 9, II.8, p. 16; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, VI, p. 246; GT, XXXIV, p. 631: ‘arcitenentes man[u]s Turcopoli’; WC, II.3, p. 104, 5, p. 108; AK, X.5, p. 298; UM, pp. 61, 140 (quotes); J. France, Western Warfare in the age of the Crusades, 1000–1300, London, 1999, pp. 219–20.

22. GF, IX.21, p. 49: ‘Agulani … lanceas neque sagittas neque ulla arma timebant, quia omnes erant undique cooperti ferro et equi eorum’.

23. GF, IX.21, p. 49, III.9, p. 21: ‘minis suarum sagittarum’; FC, II.31, p. 411, II.32, pp. 413–4; Y. Lev, ‘Army, Regime, and Society in Fatimid Egypt, 358–487/968–1094’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 19:3, 1987, pp. 337–65, at 338; State and Society in Fatimid Egypt, Leiden, 1991, pp. 89–100; M. Brett, The Rise of the Fatimids, Leiden, 2001, p. 345; R.C. Smail, Crusading Warfare, 1097–1193, 2nd edn., Cambridge, 1995, p. 86.

24. Flodoard, MGH SS, 3, ad an. 925, p. 375: ‘… Rollo princeps eorum mille Nortmannos praeter ipsius inhabitatores oppidi ex Rodomo transmiserat’; D. Bates, Normandy Before 1066, London, 1982; E. Searle, Predatory Kinship and the Creation of Norman Power, 840–1066, California, 1988.

25. DRGR, I.1, p. 7; M. Chibnall, The Normans, Oxford, 2000, p. 14.

26. DSQ, II.2, p. 142, 9, p. 150: ‘scutorum tegmine cooperti, strictaeque aciei mucronibus coruscis’, 15, p. 156, 23, p. 162: ‘ferratisque aciebus’, 24, p. 164: ‘Daci vero violabant eos jaculis’; Flodoard, MGH SS, 3, ad an. 923, p. 372: ‘plurimis ex Rodomo’, 925, p. 374: ‘perrexerant pedestri pugna certatum ad castra’; E. van Houts, The Normans in Europe, Manchester, 2000, pp. 3–5, 16–7 (on Dudo and Flodoard).

27. DSQ, II.24, p. 164: ‘Daci vero violabant eos jaculis’, III.44, p. 187, III.46, p. 191: ‘trecentis ferro indutis … mucronbius et lanceis’; Flodoard, MGH SS, 3, ad an. 925, p. 375: ‘alii propriis se oppetebant telis’.

28. DSQ, IV.112, p. 275: ‘In primo quidem congressu certaminis, praeliabantur decurtatis telis et lanceis; secundo vero mucronibus coruscis. Tunc robusta manus Northmannorum, conjunctis complicatisque ad invicem clypeis, acie corusca mucronum aggrediens, invadit armatos obstantesque Francos, et ante dextra et laeva lacerans, prosternensque atque disrumpens cuneos hostium secure, equitans super cadavera occisorum, condensum agmen obstantium, reflectique praelium in cuneos hinc inde remanentium’.

29. Ermold, MGH SS, 2, III.406, p. 497: ‘ferrum missile’; Regino of Prüm, MGH SRGius, 50, ad an. 860, p. 79; B. Bachrach, A History of the Alans in the West, Minneapolis, 1973, pp. 87–9.

30. Regino of Prüm, MGH SRGius, 50, ad an. 860, p. 79: ‘Brittones more solito huc illucque cum equis ad huiuscemodi conflictum exercitatis discursantes modo confertam Francorum aciem impetunt ac totis viribus in medio spicula torquent, nunc fugam simulantes insequentium nihilominus pectoribus spicula figunt’, ad an. 889, p. 133.

31. GG, II.17, p. 128: ‘Pudet eminus pugnare, gladiis rem gerere audent’.

32. Flodoard, MGH SS, 3, ad an. 933, p. 381; Hugh of Fleury, MGH SS, 9, p. 382; DSQ, III.38–41, pp. 182–5, III.43, p. 187: ‘Francigenas amicos’; GG, I.43–4, p. 70–4: ‘ipsa armis et equis maxime … student (74); Bates, Normandy Before 1066, pp. 7, 9–11, 26 (quote), 70–1; M. Dolley & J. Yvon, ‘A Group of Tenth-Century Coins Found at Mont-Saint-Michel’, British Numismatic Journal, 40, 1971, pp. 7–8, 10–11; J. Smith, Province and Empire: Brittany and the Carolingians, Cambridge, 1992, pp. 195–6.

33. P. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages, trans. M. Jones, Oxford, 1984, p. 230; J.F Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages, Woodbridge, 1997, pp. 211–5.

34. On which, see S. Reynolds, Fiefs and Vassals: the Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted, Oxford, 1994.

35. Chibnall, ‘Military Service in Normandy before 1066’, in Anglo-Norman Warfare, ed. M. Strickland, Woodbridge, 1992, pp. 28–40; Bates, Normandy Before 1066, pp. 122–8.

36. C. Haskins, Norman Institutions, Oxford, 1918, pp. 20–4; Cahen, Le Régime Féodal de l’Italie Normande; F. Ganshof, Feudalism, London, 1961, pp. 87–9; J. Strayer, Feudalism, 1965, London, pp. 51–4; D. Matthew, The Norman Kingdom of Sicily, Cambridge, 1992, p. 255; Martin, Le Pouille du VI^e au XII^e Siècle, pp. 754–62; G. Theotokis, The Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, 1081–1108, Woodbridge, 2014, p. 37.

37. DRGR, I.23, p. 20: ‘militiam juvenum totius Apuliae’, 25, p. 20, I.32, p. 22, II.17, p. 34: ‘trecentos juvenes’, 21, p. 36: ‘per meliores totius Apuliae ad rationem ponit … foedere … legalitatem tamen suam servans, per quadraginta dies a fratris injuria abstinuit’, III.10, p. 62: ‘familiari militia comitis’; Cahen, Le Régime Féodal de l’Italie Normande, p. 63; Bates, Normandy Before 1066, p. 127; Chibnall, ‘Military Service’, pp. 38–40.

38. DRGR, I.23, p. 20, 32, p. 22, II.21, p. 35–6, 29, p. 39: ‘fidelibus suis’, IV.9, p. 91: ‘homo efficitur … sacramentis confoederatus Boamundo’, III.31, p. 76: ‘legalitatem suam servans … homini suo’, IV.26, p. 104: ‘homo ducis factus fuerat’; AT, III.32, p. 77: ‘proceres … Principi submissi, hominio suo fidelitatem juravere’; Cahen, Le Régime Féodal de l’Italie Normande, pp. 43–5; Ganshof, Feudalism, p. 75; Bates, Normandy Before 1066, p. 124; Martin, Le Pouille du VI^e au XII^e Siècle, pp. 755–6.

39. GND, vol. 2, VI.21(42), p. 182, DRGR, I.23, p. 20; II.20, p. 35, IV.10, p. 91: ‘consilio utrorumque fidelium reconciliantur’ (cf. WC, II.1, p. 100: ‘consilio baronum’); Ganshof, Feudalism, pp. 92–3, 144; Martin, Le Pouille du VI^e au XII^e Siècle, p. 756: ‘le comte Pierre demande consilium à ses fideles’.

40. ‘The Catalogue of the Barons’, in Roger II and the Creation of the Kingdom of Sicily, ed. & trans. Loud, Manchester, 2012, pp. 329–54, no. 344, at 329; DRGR, I.25, p. 20: ‘armigerorum’, II.35, p. 46, etc.; LP, ad an. 1070, p. 60: ‘ministris’; GF, VIII.20, p. 46: ‘seruiens’; AT, IV.4, p. 83: ‘Stipendia vero militaria, vel quidquid ex conventione seu promissione dandum esset, incunctanter persolvebat’; ET, 138, p. 150: ‘τοῦ ῥιζίκου … διάρια λαχόντες … ὑπόσχεσιν’ (as Jones notes [p. 226], rizikoi derives from the Italian for ‘risk’ [risico/rischio]); Matthew, Norman Kingdom of Sicily, pp. 145–9, 230–4, 256–7; Loud, The Latin Church in Norman Italy, Cambridge, 2007, pp. 346–7.

41. DRGR, I.17, p. 18, 28, p. 22, II.22, p. 36, 30, p. 40, 39, p. 48: ‘servitium … auxilium non ferente’, III.12, p. 64: ‘[Muslim] fideles’, 20, p. 69, 30, p. 76, IV.25, p. 103; GRW, III.221–2, 231, p. 176, cf. FC, II.31, p. 411, II.32, pp. 413–4; Albert of Aachen, RHC OCC, 4, XII.13, p. 697: ‘viri Sarraceni … sagittarii fortissimi … et qui nullis in regione Iherusalem sagittandi arte inferiores haberentur’; HS, col. 748; ET, 123, p. 136: ‘Σαρακηνῶν’, 138, p. 150: ‘ἱπποτοξόται’; Ganshof, Feudalism, pp. 87–91; Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 1, p. 152; Lev, State and Society in Fatimid Egypt, pp. 89–100; Brett, The Rise of the Fatimids, p. 345; A. Metcalfe, Muslims and Christians in Norman Sicily, Abingdon, 2003, p. 20.

42. YN, II.25, p. 88, VII.3, pp. 294–5, 32, p. 330; DRGR, I.11, p. 14; GT, VIII, p. 610: ‘Ad haec conducti pretio, coacti edicto, non ultronei, non gloriae avidi militabant’; GRW, IV.131–2, p. 210: ‘Militiam … verba minantia blandis | … addens precibus’.

43. DRGR, I.4, p. 9: ‘… coeperunt militaribus disciplinis adhaerere, equorum et armorum studia frequentare, discentes seipsos tueri et hostem impugnare’, 40, p. 25, III.31, p. 76: ‘Gregarius … miles’; EH, vol. 3, VI, p. 216: ‘nobilium ignobiliumque puerorum’; GG, II.33, p. 158; GRW, I.4, p. 98: ‘Gens Normannorum feritate insignis equestri’; AK, X.3, p. 289: ‘Νορμανόθεν ἥκειν’; XIII.8, pp. 405–6: ‘ἀκατάσχετος … τεῖχος διατετρήνειε Βαβυλώνιον’; H. Taviani-Carozzi, La terreur du monde: Robert Guiscard et la conquête normand en Italie Mythe et Histoire, Paris, 1996, pp. 51–4; Bates, Normandy Before 1066, p. 245; J. Gillingham, ‘An Age of Expansion, c. 1020–1204’, in Medieval Warfare: A History, ed. M. Keen, New York, 1999, pp. 59–88, at 65; C. Kostick, ‘The terms milites and equestres in the early crusading histories’, Nottingham Medieval Studies, 50, 2006, pp. 1–21, at 7–9.

44. GG, I.13, p. 16; YN, II.44, p. 110; R.H.C. Davis, ‘The Warhorse of the Normans, ANS, 10, 1988, pp. 67–82, at 76 & 77–8; I. Peirce, ‘Arms, Armour and Warfare in the Eleventh Century’, ANS, 10, 1988, pp. 237–57, at 245; A. Hyland, The Medieval Warhorse: From Byzantium to the Crusades, Stroud, 1994, p. 86; France, Western Warfare in the age of the Crusades, pp. 23–4; L. Musset, The Bayeux Tapestry, Woodbridge, 2005, scenes 52 & 56, pp. 238–9, 252–3.

45. DSQ, IV.112, p. 275; GG, I.11, p. 14; II.20, p. 132: ‘absque nimio … incommodo’; William of Malmesbury, ed. T. Hardy, vol. 2, III.241–2, pp. 414–6; R. Allen Brown, ‘The Battle of Hastings’, ANS, 3, 1981, pp. 1–21, at 16; Contamine, War in the Middle Ages, p. 229; France, Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, p. 160; Musset, Bayeux Tapestry, scenes 53–4, pp. 244–5; R. Jones, ‘Identifying the Warrior on the Pre-Heraldic Battlefield’, ANS, 30, 2008, pp. 154–67, at 156–7.

46. Allen Brown, ‘The Battle of Hastings’, p. 12; R. Glover, ‘English Warfare in 1066’, English Historical Review, 67, 1952, pp. 1–18, at 14. Scene 51 (BT, pp. 236–7) features lances in flight (left & right) towards the Anglo-Saxons; flying in the opposite direction (left) could be a javelin given its smaller size. See also scenes 17–19, where lances are clearly thrown at the Breton defenders of Dinan (pp. 138–41).

47. GG, I.7, p. 8, 12, p. 16: ‘lanceam proiicit’, 32–3, pp. 50–2: ‘lanceae desuper feriunt’, II.17, p. 128: ‘eos qui eminus in se iacula coniiciunt’; GRW, I.286, p. 114: ‘iaculis’, II.211–12, p. 142: ‘telis [javelins] prior enimus illos | Appetit Unfredus’, cf. GG, I.7, p. 8: ‘teloque [javelin]’; YN, II.26, p. 90: ‘li vaillant Normant … drechoient la haste contre le Grezois’; Carmen de Hastingae Proelio, ed. C. Morton & H. Muntz, Oxford, 1972, 384, p. 24: ‘astae’; J. Thorne, ‘Battle, Tactics, and the Emergence of the Limites in the West’, in A Companion to the Roman Army, ed. P. Erdkamp, Sussex, 2011, pp. 471–503, at 480; M. Bennett, ‘The Medieval Warhorse Reconsidered’, in Medieval Knighthood, ed. S. Church & R. Harvey, 5, 1995, pp. 19–40, at 33–5.

48. Adémar de Chabannes, Chronique, ed. J. Chavanon, Paris, 1897, III.53, p. 176; GF, X.39, p. 96; GRW, II.224, p. 144; GND, vol. 2, V.11, p. 24; AK, V.4, pp. 150–2: ‘ἐξ ἐκατέρου μέρους βαλλόμενος’ (150); WC, II.2, p. 102: ‘astrictis lateri clypeis, palpatis lanceis, pressis calcaribus’; GT, IV, p. 608: ‘Habenas laxant, calcaribus utuntur, lanceas vibrant’.

49. GT, V, p. 608: ‘in hostem ruere … ruentem repellere potuissent’.

50. GG, II.16, p. 126: ‘pedites … loricatos’; GRW, I.260, p. 112: ‘armati pedites’, II.498, p. 158: ‘armatos’; GT, V, p. 608: ‘armati’; EH, vol. 2, III, p. 172: ‘pedites loricatos’; HS, col. 750: ‘pedites armatos’.

51. GG, II.22, p. 134; GRW, II.226–7, p. 144; AK, V.6, p. 158.

52. Chartes de Jumièges, ed. J.J. Vernier, Rouen, 1916, vol. 1, 2, p. 69; GND, vol. 2, V.4, p. 12: ‘uulgi’; DRGR, I.21, p. 19: ‘peditum’; GRW, I.260–2, p. 112: ‘peditum plebs’ (260); GT, V, p. 608: ‘vulgus inerme’; Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare, pp. 61–2.

53. Thuc. 4.33–6; DRGR, II.37, p. 47; GRW, II.413, p. 154: ‘fortis in armis’, III.576–7, p. 196: ‘bella pedestria’, IV.472–5, p. 230: ‘electos equites’; HS, col. 763: ‘Agelli feroces’; Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 1081–1180, pp. 64–5 (cf. VR, I.17, p. 19–20; see Appendix).

54. YN, VIII.24, p. 362; GRW, III.258, p. 178: ‘Muniri pedites fundis facit atque sagittis’ (‘He [Guiscard] had the infantry strengthened with slings and arrows’), 274, p. 178; DRGR, III.37, IV.17, p. 96; GT, VIII, p. 610: ‘funditores’ (‘slingers’); Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.5, p. 146: ‘πλήθους σφενδονητῶν ἀναρίθμου’; HS, col. 673: ‘Cives … jactu lapidum [casting stones], atque telorum creberrimo’.

55. GG, II.16, p. 126: ‘sagittis armatos et balistis’; Carmen de Hastingae Proelio, 338, p. 22: ‘balisantes’, 381–2, p. 24, 411–2, p. 26; YN, IV.28, p. 202, V.28, p. 256: ‘arbalestiers’, VIII.14, p. 354; GRW, III.258, p. 178; GF, II.8, p. 15: ‘arbalistae et sagittarii’; EH, III, vol. 2, p. 172; William of Malmesbury, ed. T. Hardy, vol. 2, III.242, p. 415: ‘Pedites cum arcubus et sagittis’; AK, X.8, p. 305: ‘τζάγρας’.

56. Vegetius, Epitoma rei militaris, ed. M.D. Reeve, Oxford, 2004, III.26, pp. 116–8; GND, VII.7(17), p. 122; VII.8(18), p. 124; GG, I.10, p. 12, 17, p. 24, 26, p. 38: ‘fame uinceret’; YN, IV.8, p. 188; 11, pp. 189–90; 14, p. 193 (Aquino); CMC, II.15, pp. 378–9; DRGR, I.21, p. 19; J. Gillingham, ‘William the Bastard at War’, in Anglo-Norman Warfare, ed. M. Strickland, 1992, pp. 143–60, at 150–6; C. Allmand, The De Re Militari of Vegetius: The Reception, Transmission and Legacy of a Roman Text in the Middle Ages, Cambridge, 2001, pp. 1–8.

57. YN, II.19, p. 77, V.6, p. 228; DRGR, IV.17, p. 96.

58. VR, II.25, pp. 59–61; LD, I.9, p. 16: ‘ἐκλογῇ τεχνιτῶν’, II.7, pp. 25–7, III.11, pp. 52–3; NO, 65.17–24, pp. 158–62; Ibn al-Aṯīr, BAS, I, p. 496; ET, 59, p. 74: ‘σεισμοῦ θυγάτηρ’; UM, p. 125; Bachrach, Fulk Nerra, the Neo-Roman Consul, 987–1040, California, 1993, pp. 180–3; W.T.S. Tarver, ‘The Traction Trebuchet: A Reconstruction of an Early Medieval Siege Engine’, Technology and Culture, 36, 1995, pp. 136–67; N. Hooper & Bennett, The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, Cambridge, 1996, pp. 33–4; France, Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, pp. 116–21 (quote at 117); P. Chevedden, ‘The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet: A Study in Cultural Diffusion’, DOP, 54, 2000, pp. 71–116.

59. GG, I.40, p. 66: ‘locus omnino machinamentis importunus erat’; ABC, ad an. 1043, p. 151; GRW, II.497–502, p. 158: ‘Diversi generis tormento’ (502); DRGR, II.40, pp. 48–9; YN, V.27, pp. 248–9; HS, col. 763; R. Rogers, Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century, Oxford, 1997, pp. 96–7.

60. GRW, II.497–8, p. 158: ‘crates … Sub quibus armatos’ (cf. HS, col. 763: ‘vinearum’); GT, XXXV, p. 631: ‘umbonum cratem’, CIV, p. 679, cf. GF, II.8, p. 15, AK, XI.1–2, pp. 324–5: ‘παντοῖα … ἑλεπόλεων’ (325); NO, 65.14–8, pp. 158–60; Chevedden, ‘The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet’, p. 85, at note 55; McGeer, ‘Tradition and Reality in the “Taktika” of Nikephoros Ouranos’, DOP, 45, 1991, pp. 129–40, at 133–7.

61. GRW, III.132: ‘Gens Normannorum navalis nescia belli | Hactenus’, 164–5, p. 172, 187–8, p. 174, 235–6, p. 176, 344–5, p. 182; DRGR, II.43, p. 51, IV.2, p. 86; ABC, ad. an 1069, p. 153; E. Eickhoff, ‘Byzantinische Wachtflotillen in Unteritalien im 10 Jahrhundert’, Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 24, 1952, pp. 340–4; Matthew, Norman Kingdom, pp. 260–1; H. Houben, Roger II of Sicily, trans. Loud & D. Milburn, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 25, 150; D.B. Saddington, ‘Classes. The Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets’, in A Companion to the Roman Army, pp. 201–17, at 201–2.

Chapter 2

1. Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 1, pp. 48–50; E. Joranson, ‘The Inception of the Career of the Normans in Italy’, Speculum, 23:3, 1948, pp. 353–96; H. Hoffman, ‘Die Anfänge de Normannen in Unteritalien’, QFIAB, 49, 1969, pp. 95–144; France, ‘The occasion of the coming of the Normans to Southern Italy’, JMH, 17, 1991, pp. 185–205; Taviani-Carozzi, La terreur du monde, pp. 29–46, 129–44; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, pp. 60–6.

2. CMC, II.37, p. 239: ‘Melus … Capuae cum principe morabatur … Normanni aliquot, quadraginta fere numero’; Adémar de Chabannes, Chronique, III.55, p. 178: ‘multitudo’.

3. CMC, II.37, p. 239: ‘Grecorum odio’; AK, I.11, p. 36.

4. Adémar de Chabannes, Chronique, III.55, p. 178; Raoul Glaber, Historiarum libri quinque, ed. & trans. J. France, Oxford, 1989, III.3, pp. 98–100: ‘Normannorum tamen exercitui uictoria prouenit’; YN, I.21–3, pp. 27–32; CMC, II.37, pp. 239–40; LP, ad an. 1017–9, p. 57; GRW, I.64–94, pp. 102–4.

5. GRW, I.91–94, p. 104: ‘Vicinus Cannis qua defluit Aufidus amnis, | Circiter Octobris pugnatur utrimque Kalendas.| Cum modica non gente valens obsistere Melus | Terga dedit, magna spoliatus parte suorum’.

6. GRW, I.84, p. 102: ‘Multa Graecorum cum gente’; Adémar de Chabannes, Chronique, III.55, p. 178.

7. CMC, II.37, p. 240: ‘Quarta demum pugna apud Cannas, Romannorum olim clade famosas, Boianó catapani insidiis atque ingéniis superatus, universa quę facile receperat facílius perdidit’.

8. Maurice’s Strategikon, ed. Dennis, IV.1, p. 52; AK, XV.3, p. 467: ‘ἐμοί δ ἄριστον νενόμισται καὶ τὸ ἐν αὐτῇ τῇ μάχῃ μηχανᾶσθαί τι πανοῦργον καὶ στρατηγικόν, ὁπηνίκα μὴ ἀπόχρη τὸ στράτευμα πρὸς τὴν τῶν ἐναντίον ἰσχύν’.

9. LP, ad an. 1021, p. 57: ‘intravit in civitatem Bari equitatis in asina’; CMC, II.38, p. 242: ‘post paucos dies insutum culleo more parricidarum in medio mari pręcipitari’; M. Radin, ‘The Lex Pompeia and the Poena Cullei’, Journal of Roman Studies, 10, 1920, pp. 119–130; L. Garland, ‘Street Life in Constantinople: Women and the Carnivalesque’, in Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800–1200, ed. L. Garland, Aldershot, 2006, pp. 163–76, at 170–1.

10. CMC, II.51, p. 261: ‘corrupta vulgaritate Capitinata vocatur … Catapanata debeat appellari’; LP, ad an. 1023, p. 57; ABC, ad an. 1023, p. 149; S. Borsari, ‘Aspetti del dominio bizantino in Capitanata’, Atti dell’academia Pontaniana, 16, 1966/7, pp. 55–66.

11. Desiderius, MGH SS, 30:2, II.22, p. 1138: ‘more strenuorum militum’, I.10, p. 1124: ‘rapinam avidi’; II.22, p. 1139: ‘sacrilega ducti cupiditate’; CMC, II.38, p. 241, II.64, p. 294, II.70–1, pp. 308–12; Annales Casinenses, MGH SS, 5, ad an. 1045, p. 306; AC, ad an. 1045, p. 189; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, pp. 73, 77, 102.

12. YN, I.40, p. 52; ABe, ad an. 1036, p. 178; GRW, I.148, p. 106: ‘dominandi magna libido’; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 72.

13. YN, I.42–5, pp. 53–6.

14. YN, II.3, pp. 59–60; DRGR, I.6, p. 10: ‘multis donariis ad fidelitatem eius inflammati, diversis et crebris incursionibus Capuanos lacessentes, totam provinciam … terruerunt circumquaque … Salernitani … idem facere’.

15. YN, II.5–6, pp. 61–5; Wipo, MGH SRGius, 61, xvii, p. 37; AC, ad an. 1038, p. 189.

16. LP, ad an. 1031, p. 57; SI, Mich. IV, 8–9, p. 398; Metcalfe, The Muslims of Medieval Italy, Edinburgh, 2009, p. 81.

17. YN, II.8, pp. 66–67; CMC, II.66, p. 298; DRGR, 1.7, p. 10, I.8, p. 11: ‘graeci sermonis peritiam habebat’; SI, Con. IX, 3, p. 425; GRW, I.204, p. 110: ‘Lambardorum Gallis admixta’; HS, col. 747.

18. SI, Mich. IV, 20, p. 406; HS, cols. 747–8; S. Blöndal & B.S. Benedikz, The Varangians of Byzantium, Cambridge, 1978, p. 67.

19. Vita S. Philareti, Acta Sanctorum, April, i, Paris, 1866, p. 606: ‘laminis … in tres acies’; DRGR, I.7, p. 11; HS, cols. 748–9; Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 1, p. 91: ‘exagéré le ròle joué par les Normands dans cette campagne’; Shepard, ‘Uses of the Franks’, p. 283.

20. Bachrach, ‘On the Origins of William the Conqueror’s Horse Transports’, Technology and Culture, 26:3, 1985, pp. 505–31, at 514 & 527; C. Stanton, Norman Naval Operations in the Mediterranean, Woodbridge, 2011, p. 51; Haldon, Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, pp. 113–4; G. Dennis, ‘Introduction’, in Strategikon, p. xiii; E. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, Washington D.C, 1999, p. 284.

21. SI, Mich. IV, pp. 405–6, Con. IX, 3, pp. 425–6; YN, II.14, pp. 72–3, 16–9, pp. 74–8; GRW, I.206–22, p. 110; DRGR, I.8, pp. 11–2; ABC, ad an. 1041–2, p. 150.

22. NP, III.7, p. 36 (κονταράτος/lance), IV.2–3, pp. 38–40 (κονταράτοι/lancers); NO, 60.9, p. 116 (κονταράτοι/lancers); Kühn, Die Byzantinische Armee im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert, p. 131; Theotokis, Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, p. 107.

23. GT, VIII, p. 610: ‘milites Normannia, Longobardia pedites’; Glaber, Historiarum libri quinque, II.3, p. 100: ‘deficisse uirosque … minus belli aptos’; YN, II.25, p. 88, VI.5, p. 265, VIII.12, pp. 352–3; DRGR, I.11, p. 14, II.31, p. 41: ‘suis equos, quos amiserant’; GRW, I.164–8, p. 108, A. Ayton, ‘Arms and Armour’, in Medieval Warfare: A History, ed. M. Keen, New York, 1999, pp. 186–208, at 192; Hyland, Medieval Warhorse, p. 85.

24. ABC, ad an. 1040–1, pp. 149–50; ABa, ad an. 1040–1, p. 54; LP, ad an. 1039–40, p. 58.

25. GRW, I.241, p. 112: ‘Nullus tunc Italis exercitus imperialis’, I.243–244, p. 112: ‘bellum | Adversus Siculos’; YN, II.18–20, pp. 76–9.

26. SI, Con. IX, 3, p. 426: ‘τάγμα τὸ τοῦ Ὀψικίου καὶ μέρος τῶν Θρᾳκησίων’; ABa, ad an. 1041, p. 54: ‘multi Russi et Obsequiani’.

27. GRW, I.260, p. 113: ‘Armati pedites’ (cf. HS, col. 750: ‘pedites armatos’), 267, p. 112: ‘Contra quos cuneus Graecorum mittitur unus’, 286, p. 114: ‘Hos iaculis, illos gladiis gens Gallica stravit’; YN, II.21, p. 83; DRGR, I.9, pp. 11–2.

28. ABa, ad an. 1041, p. 54; YN, II.23, p. 85; GRW, I.297–307, pp. 114–6.

29. GRW, I.259, p. 112: ‘paucos’; AK, X.8, p. 306: ‘φολιδωτὸν διεληλυθὼς θώρακα’, XIII.8, p. 405: ‘τοῖς θώραξι καὶ τοῖς σιδηροῖς χιτῶσι’ (cf. I.5, p. 20: ‘τοῖς σιδηροῖς θώραξι’); Brown, ‘The Gesta Roberti Wiscardi’, p. 178. On lamellar and scale coats, see M. Parani, Reconstructing the Reality of Images: Byzantine Material Culture and Religious Iconography (11th-15th Centuries), Leiden, 2003, pp. 104–12.

30. GRW, I.323–7, p. 116; YN, II.25–6, p. 88: ‘la multitude’.

31. SI, Con. IX, p. 426: ‘ἀνεπιτήδειος ἄνθρωπος’; GRW, I.329–30, p. 116, 388, p. 120: ‘Normannos hortans ad bella redire fugaces’; YN, II.26, p. 90: ‘drechoient la haste contre le Grezois’; DRGR, I.10, p. 13.

32. GRW, I.414–9, p. 120; LP, ad an. 1042, p. 58: ‘Barensis princeps et dux Italiae’.

33. ABa, ad an. 1042, p. 55: ‘… scripsit Argiri in Aversam ad ipsos Normandos et in Melfiam et omnes venientes quasi septem milia in Mutulam’.

34. ABa, ad an. 1042, p. 55: ‘depraedaverunt totam terram Oriae … reversi sunt ad sua’.

35. DRGR, II.40, p. 48.

36. ABa, ad an. 1042, p. 55: ‘liberavit ex Normannorum manibus’, p. 56: ‘turrem … qualis humanis oculis nusquam visa est modernis temporibus’; ABC, ad an. 1042, p. 151: ‘Turrem excelsam ligneam’; LD, I.9, p. 16: ‘ἑλετόλεις ἐκλογῇ τεχνιτῶν ἐτεκταίνετο’; Michael Attaleiates, CSHB, p. 151: ‘ἑλετόλεις … τῶν χιλίων’; GRW, II.499–501, p. 158; AK, IV.1, p. 120, XIII.3, p. 393.

37. ABa, ad an. 1042, p. 56; ABC, ad an. 1042, p. 151; SI, Mich. IV, 21, p. 409, Con. IX, 2, pp. 424–5: ‘τάς στρατιὰς τῶν ἐγγιζόντων τούτῳ θεμάτων καὶ αὐτῷ ὐποκειμένων’, 3, pp. 427–8; GRW, I.479, p. 124: ‘Argiroo mandat studeat convertere Gallos’; 512–3, p. 126, II.4, p. 132: ‘Gallos permittit abire’; YN, II.28, p. 93.

38. SI, Con. IX, 3, pp. 427–8; LP, ad an. 1043, p. 58; GRW, I.486–510, pp. 124–6.

39. ABC, ad an. 1043, p. 151; GRW, II.6–13, p. 132; Codice Diplomatico Barese, vol. 4, 32, p. 67; YN, II.29, pp. 93–4; LP, ad an. 1044, p. 58.

40. ABC, ad an. 1043, p. 151; GRW, I.558–60, p. 128; SI, Con. IX, 3, p. 428; Michael Attaleiates, CSHB, pp. 18–20; Bryennios, CFHB, 9, IV.6, p. 269; Kedrenos, CSHB, 2, p. 720; AK, I.5, p. 20; Shepard, ‘Uses of the Franks’, pp. 283–4, esp. n. 38.

41. ABC, ad an. 1045, p. 151; GRW, II.29–32, p. 132.

42. ABC, ad an. 1048, p. 151: ‘cum aliquanti Franci, & Graeci’; SI, Con IX, 8, p. 440; GRW, II.38–41, p. 134; Codice Diplomatico Barese, vol. 4, 32, pp. 67–8: ‘τὼν Φράνκων … τοὺς αὐτοῦ χωρίτας τυγχάνοντας ἐξοχεῖς τοῦ αὐτοῦ χωρίου ὁποῦ ἄν ὑπάρχουσιν εῖτεν εἰς κάστρον ἦ χωρίον ἀλλαχοῦ πᾶσας δουλείας … στρατίας ἣ δρουγγαραίον [sic]’; ABC, ad an. 1046, p. 151; LP, ad an. 1046, p. 58.

43. GRW, II.20–37, pp. 132–4; YN, II.32–3, pp. 97–100, 35–7, pp. 100–4, 44–5, pp. 110–3; CMC, II.66, p. 301; Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 1, pp. 116–7; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, pp. 103–4, 128.

44. YN, III.1–3, pp. 116–8, 4, p. 119: ‘troiz eschilles de Normans’; GRW, II.130, p. 138: ‘Cognomen Guiscardus erat, quia calliditatis | Non Cicero tantae fuit aut versutus Ulixes’; Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 1, pp. 113–5; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, pp. 107–8.

45. William of Malmesbury, ed. T. Hardy, vol. 2, III.262, p. 439: ‘cum quindecim militibus’; AK, I.11, p. 36 (cf. YN, III.8, p. 121: ‘Chevalier son petit’); YN, II.46, pp. 112–3, III.6–8, pp. 119–21; DRGR, I.12, p. 14, 16, pp. 16–7; GRW, II.297–341, pp. 148–50.

46. DRGR, I.16, p. 16–7: ‘totius Calabriae gnaros … [17] peditibus suis equites fecit’; Martin, Le Pouille du VI^e au XII^e Siècle, pp. 504–9; Taviani-Carozzi, La terreur du monde, pp. 187–8.

47. DRGR, I.17, p. 17–8 (cf. I.28, p. 22: ‘servitium … juraverunt’); YN, III.10–1, pp. 122–6; CMC, III.15, p. 377; Ganshof, Feudalism, p. 87.

48. ABC, ad an. 1011, p. 148, 1046–7, p. 151: ‘pacem firmaverunt cum Bari … & reversi sunt in Ydrontum’; LP, ad an. 1047, p. 59: ‘comprehensum est oppidum Stira a Gurangis in mense Octobris, et in mense Decembris depopulaverunt Liccem’; ABC, ad an. 1048, p. 151; Guillou, ‘Production and Profits in the Byzantine Province of Italy (Tenth to Eleventh Centuries): An Expanding Society’, DOP, 28, 1974, pp. 89–109, at 106–7.

49. Martin, Le Pouille du VI^e au XII^e Siècle, p. 704: ‘δούξ Ἰταλίας, Καλαβρίας, Σικελίας καὶ Παφλαγονίας’; ABC, ad an. 1051, p. 151; LP, ad an. 1051, p. 59.

50. DRGR, I.13, p. 14: ‘omnes Normanni una die’, 10, p. 13: ‘vineta et oliveta … extirpabant’; LP, ad an. 1053, p. 59: ‘magna fames’; YN, III.17–9, p. 92.

51. Leo IX, ‘epistola ad Constantinum Monomachum’, in PL, 143, col. 779A: ‘gloriosi ducis et magistris Argyroi fidelissimi’; GRW, II.71–4, p. 136; YN, III.23, pp. 138–9; ABe, ad an. 1047 & 1051, p. 179; CMC, II.78, p. 323; Hermann of Reichenau, MGH SS, 5, ad an. 1053, p. 132.

52. YN, III.28, pp. 143–5: ‘li chevalier de Salerne’; CMC, II.82, p. 329: ‘litus … aliquandiu’; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 117.

53. ABC, ad an. 1052, p. 151: ‘bellum’; ABe, ad an. 1053, pp. 179–80; Stanton, ‘The Battle of Civitate: A Plausible Account’, Journal of Medieval Military History, 12, 2013, pp. 25–55, at 37.

54. Leo IX, ‘epistola ad Constantinum Monomachum’, col. 779A: ‘repentino impetu comitatum nostrum aggrediuntur’; ABe, ad an. 1053, p. 180: ‘insperate’.

55. ABe, ad an. 1053, p. 180: ‘nostratibus ferme 300 milites’; GRW, II.137–8, p. 138: ‘Vix proceres istos equites ter mille sequuntur, | Et pauci pedites’, cf. I.258–9, p. 112; Robert the Monk, RHC, 3, IV.7, p. 779, V.1, p. 791; FC, II.11, p. 391, II.32, p. 413: ‘Milites nostri erant quingenti, exceptis illis qui militari nomine non censebatur, tamen equitantes’; Theotokis, Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, p. 131; Kostick, ‘The terms milites, equites and equestres’, pp. 6–7, 18. Fulcher only uses armigera for 1101, but Kostick suggest that those made milites in 1105 ‘were perhaps squires’.

56. GRW, II.149, p. 140: ‘Collis’; Michele Fuiano, ‘La battaglia di Civitate’, Archivo storico pugliese, 2, 1949, pp. 125–33, at 129 & 132; ‘impadronitisi del colle, assalirono i nemici’; Stanton, ‘The Battle of Civitate’, p. 45.

57. GRW, II.188–91, p. 142: ‘Cornu servare sinistrum | Robertus frater Calabra cum gente iubetur, | Ut succurrendum cum viderit esse, paratus | Auxilio properet sociis, viresque reformet’.

58. GRW, II.224, p. 144: ‘lancea … ensis’.

59. GRW, II.185–6, p. 142: ‘comitatur | Clara cohors equitum’, 201, p. 142: ‘iaculis caeduntur et ense’, II.211–12, p. 142: ‘telis prior enimus illos | Appetit Unfredus’ (cf. GG, II.17, p. 128: ‘eos qui eminus in se iacula coniiciunt’), III.45–6, p. 166: ‘Undique tela volant; circumtegit aera totum | Grando sagittarum’ (cf. IV.382–3, p. 225); Mathieu, in GRW, p. 143: ‘flèches’; Stanton, ‘The Battle of Civitate’, p. 49: ‘arrows’.

60. Bennett, ‘The Medieval Warhorse Reconsidered’, pp. 33–5; GRW, II.158, p. 140: ‘longi specialiter et peracuti’.

61. GRW, II.253–5, p. 146: ‘Acies praeclara Ricardi | Addita victoris, magnae fit causa ruinae | Hostibus’; DRGR, I.14, p. 15: ‘pene omnes occubuerunt’.

62. AC, ad an. 1053, p. 189: ‘Leo papa cum Normannis in Apulia dimicavit’; CMC, III.9, p. 371; ABC, ad an. 1058, p. 152; YN, III.41–42, pp. 157–159; GRW, II.262–266, p. 146; DRGR, I.14–15, pp. 15–16; Taviani-Carozzi, La terreur du monde, pp. 211, 227–8; C. Will, Acta et scripta quae de controversiis ecclesiae Graecae et Latinae saeculo undecimo extant, Leipzig, 1861, pp. 166–167, 185; Chalandon, Domination Normande, pp. 156–60; M. Mathieu, in GRW, p. 286; H. Bloch, Monte Cassino in the Middle Ages, Cambridge, 1986, vol. 1, pp. 34–7; H.E.J. Cowdrey, The Age of Abbot Desiderius, Oxford, 1983, p. 111.

63. William of Malmesbury, ed. T. Hardy, vol. 2, III.262, p. 441: ‘terror mundi’.

Chapter 3

1. GRW, II.293–6, p. 148; DRGR, I.10, p. 13: ‘machinamentisque … doctissimi’, IV.28, p. 106 (Capua); Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 121, n. 80; P. Oldfield, ‘Rural settlement and economic development in Southern Italy: Troia and its contado, c.1020 - c.1230’, JMH, 31, 2005, pp. 327–45, at 328.

2. GRW, II.333, p. 150: ‘Non aliquod castrum posset captare vel urbem’; YN, IV.8, p. 188, 11, pp. 189–90.

3. YN, IV.28, p. 202: ‘arc et arbaleste’; CMC. III.15, p. 379; GG, II.16, p. 126: ‘sagittis armatos et balistis’; DRGR, I.14, p. 15.

4. YN, IV.28, p. 202: ‘divers ystruments et engins por traire pierres … et molt hedifices rompi’.

5. DRGR, I.18, p. 18: ‘exploraret … videret se cives urbis nec minis nec blandimentis inflectere posse’; Pontieri in DRGR, p. 18, n. 5; T.S. Brown & Christie, ‘Was there a Byzantine model of settlement in Italy?’, Mélanges de l’Ecole française de Rome, Moyen-Age, Temps modernes, 101:2, 1989, pp. 377–99, at 381; G.P. Givigliano, ‘I percorsi dell conquista’, in I normanni in finibus Calabriae, ed. F.A. Cuteri, Catanzaro, 2003, pp. 23–34, at 24–6.

6. YN, IV.5, pp. 186–9.

7. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, ed. W. Smith, vol. 1, London, 1870, pp. 1070–1; DRGR, I.19, p. 19: ‘omnes civitates et castra illius provinciae et totius vallis Salinarum’; Givigliano, ‘I percorsi dell conquista’, p. 25; F. Martorano, ‘Il castello di Vibo Valentia: una fondazione federiciana’, Quaderni del dipartimento patrimonio architettonico e urbanistico, 9, 1995, pp. 155–74.

8. Guillou, ‘La Tourma des Salines dans la Thème de Calabre (XI^e Siècle)’, p. 22; von Falkenhausen, ‘Rocca Niceforo: un castello normanno in Calabria’, Bollettino della Badi Greca di Grottaferrata, 54, 2000, pp. 227–37; Liber Pontificalis Dertusensi, in M. Short, Calixtus the Second (1119–1124): a pope born to rule, Leiden, 2004, p. 347: ‘Arcem de Calabria quae Nuceforis dicitur’.

9. SI, Con. IX, 16–22, pp. 454–71, 24–5, pp. 471–3, 28, pp. 474–7, 22, pp. 467–8: ‘Ἐρβέβιον τὸν Φραγγόπωλον ἄρχοντα τῷ τότε τῶν ὁμοεθνῶν’.

10. Guillou, ‘La Tourma des Salines dans la Thème de Calabre (XI^e Siècle)’, p. 20; Treadgold, Byzantine State and Society, pp. 593–6; Kühn, Die Byzantinische Armee im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert, pp. 123–34; McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, p. 284; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 37; d’Agostino, Da Locri a Gerace, pp. 98–9.

11. DRGR, I.21, p. 19: ‘maxima manu equitum et peditum’.

12. DRGR, I.24, p. 20: ‘multas incursiones versus Guiscardum faciens, circumquaque lacessivit’.

13. DRGR, I.27, p. 21: ‘gladius a Normannis, vix alicui parcens, desaeviebat’, I.28, p. 22: ‘coeperunt jugum Normannorum … excutere’; LP, ad an. 1058, p. 59; ‘fecit occidere Scribones in Cutroni civitate’; HS, col. 754; Kedrenos, CSHB, 2, pp. 721–2; Bury, The Imperial Administrative System in the Ninth Century, pp. 58–9; Kühn, Die Byzantinische Armee im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert, pp. 86, 101.

14. DRGR, I.29, p. 22: ‘videns se Calabriam perdere et Apuliam totam turbari … montis Nichifoli et montis Sckillaci’, 32, p. 22; HS, col. 754.

15. DRGR, I.34, p. 23: ‘usque Regium praedatum vadens’.

16. GRW, II.412–5, p. 154: ‘Hinc ad loca caetera transit.| Tunc Rossana potens, Cossentia fortis in armis, | Tunc quoque dives opum Geratia subditur illi, | Et subiecta illi fit pene Calabria tota’.

17. DRGR, I.34, p. 23: ‘machinamenta’, IV.17, p. 96.

18. DRGR, I.34, p. 23: ‘qui caeteris principari videbantur’, 36–7, p. 24; Martin, Le Pouille du VI^e au XII^e Siècle, p. 704.

19. DRGR, I.23, p. 20, 32, p. 22 (cf. GT, CLIII-IV, pp. 74–5), II.21, pp. 35–6, 23, p. 36; R. Caputo, Il Museo statale di Mileto, Reggio, 2002, p. 142.

20. DRGR, II.26, p. 38: ‘Si diutius differre tentatis, ecce ad praesens vineta et oliveta vestra extirpabuntur. Urbs vestra, a nobis obsessa, machinamentis apparatis, nullo contra nos praesidio, tuebitur’; HS, col. 757–9.

21. DRGR, II.28, p. 39, III.42, p. 82.

22. DRGR, II.37, p. 47: ‘in provincia Cusentii … impetum in hostes facientes, ubi densiores erant, prorumpere nituntur … jaculo confossus’; HS, col. 763: ‘Agelli feroces’.

23. NP, I.12, p. 18: ‘συμβάλλωσι μετὰ τῶν καταφράκτων ἐναντίων καὶ περισπῶσιν αὐτούς’ (cf. VR, I.17, pp. 19–20); GT, V, p. 608: ‘ruentem repellere potuissent’.

24. DRGR, II.44, p. 52: ‘Sicque per sex fere annos duci rebelles per diversa loca Calabriae, ab ipsis turbatio plurima facta est’.

25. YN, VII.2, pp. 292–3, 18, p. 310.

26. YN, VII.18, pp. 310–1, 21, pp. 312–3; DRGR, III.4–6, pp. 59–60; HS, col. 766.

27. DRGR, III.8, p. 61, IV.1, p. 85; HS, col. 766–7.

28. GRW, III.576–7, p. 196: ‘bella pedestria’, IV.472–3, p. 230: ‘Dux Cusentinos quosdam, quos praefore cursu | Noverat, elegit …’; DRGR, IV.16, p. 94, 17, p. 96: ‘auxilium … diu .. multa Saracenorum millia … et militum copias … in altiori urbis jugo … servitii’.

29. YN, V.11, p. 234; DRGR, II.1, p. 30: ‘primo timore simulato, cum eos longius ab urbe seduxisset, impetu facto, acerrime super eos irruens, in fugam vertit’; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 149; Stanton, Norman Naval Operations, p. 34.

30. YN, V.8, pp. 229–30; DRGR, II.3, p. 30; Ibn al-Aṯīr, BAS, I, trans. Amari, pp. 445–7: ‘signore dell’isola’; Ibn Khaldūn, BAS, II, pp. 201–2; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 148; Metcalfe, Muslims of Medieval Italy, pp. 84–5.

31. Ibn Khaldūn, BAS, II, p. 202; YN, V.9–10, pp. 231–3: ‘coment les mena Vultimine [al-Ṯumnah]’; DRGR, II.4, p. 31, 16–17, p. 34: ‘septingenti’, 35, p. 46: ‘parte armigerum, qui praedam minabant’; LP, ad an. 1070, p. 60: ‘ministris quadraginta tribus’; GF, VIII.20, p. 46: ‘seruiens Longobardus’; HS, col. 770: ‘nostri armigeri’; Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 1, pp. 193–4: ‘le rest comprenait les écuyers et valets’; Verbruggen, The Western Art of Warfare, pp. 68, 79, 101–2; Matthew, Norman Kingdom, p. 256; Stanton, Norman Naval Operations, pp. 34–5.

32. YN, V.10, pp. 232–3; DRGR, II.4–6, pp. 30–1: ‘impune transire permisit’ (31); HS, col. 755; GG, II.9, pp. 114–6; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, vol. 2, pp. 571–2.

33. Liudprand, Antapodosis, V.9, p. 135: ‘chelandia’; Thietmar, MGH SRGN, 9, III.23, p. 127: ‘salandria’; GRW, V.155, p. 244: ‘chelindros’; ABC, ad an. 1064, p. 152: ‘Chelandie’; GT, CLIII, p. 713: ‘sandalias’; DRGR, II.8, p. 32, IV.16, p. 95: ‘comes, navis digressus, cum tredecim tantum militibus equos ascendens [Malta]’; LD, I.3, p. 7; AK, I.16, p. 51, III.12, p. 117: ‘τε τοὺς δρόμωνας ἵππους τὲ καὶ ἐνόπλους ἱππέας εἰσελάσας’; H. Ahrweiler, Byzance et le Mer, Paris, 1966, pp. 410–3; E. Jeffreys & J. Pryor, The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca 500–1204, Leiden, 2006, pp. 188–92.

34. YN, V.11, p. 234, 14, p. 235: ‘subtilissime et molt velocissime’; Ahrweiler, Byzance et le Mer, p. 414; Stanton, Norman Naval Operations, p. 35.

35. Theophanes, CSHB, I, A.M. 6254, pp. 667–8; Thietmar, MGH SRGN, 9, III.23, p. 127; DRGR, II.8, p. 32, 10, p. 32; YN, V.11, p. 234, 13–5, pp. 234–6; Stanton, Norman Naval Operations, pp. 237–8; Theotokis, Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, p. 96.

36. DRGR, II.13–6, pp. 33–4; YN, V.18–21, pp. 237–9, 25, p. 244.

37. DRGR, II.17–8, pp. 34–5; YN, V.23, pp. 240–4; HS, col. 756.

38. DRGR, II.20, p. 35: ‘militibus et stipendiariis’, 22, p. 36; HS, col. 756; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 151.

39. DRGR, II.29, pp. 39–40; Metcalfe, Muslims of Medieval Italy, p. 97; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 154.

40. DRGR, II.29–31, pp. 39–41.

41. DRGR, II.32, pp. 41–2; HS, col. 760.

42. Ibn al-Aṯīr, BAS, I, p. 448; Metcalfe, Muslims of Medieval Italy, pp. 92–3.

43. DRGR, II.33, pp. 42–3: ‘exceptis peditibus, quorum infinita erat multitudo … duos cuneos faciens ex suis’ (43); HS, col. 760.

44. VR, I.26, pp. 27–8, III.17–8, pp. 101–3; IS, IX.3, 56–9; NP, III.1, p. 34: ‘ἡ τρίγωνος τῶν καταφράκτων παράταξις’; DRGR, I.14, p. 15: ‘ordinataque acie suorum’, II.17, p. 34: ‘duas acies ordinans’; P. Rance, ‘The Fulcum, the Late Roman and Byzantine Testudo: The Germanization of Roman Infantry Tactics?’, Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, 44, 2004, pp. 265–326, at 312; P. Sidnell, Warhorse: Cavalry in Ancient Warfare, London, 2006, pp. 80, 271.

45. GG, II.17, p. 128: ‘Romanae maiestatis exercitus … uincere solitus terra marique, fugit aliquando, cum ducem suum sciret aut crederet occisum. Credidere Normanni ducem ac dominum suum cecidisse. Non ergo nimis pudenda fuga cessere …’.

46. DRGR, II.33, p. 44: ‘Arcadium de Palerna … splendenti clamucio … ferrea, quae per juncturas cum catenata sunt … ingenio’; HS, col. 762: ‘lancea gloriosissimi Comitis interfecto’.

47. YN, V.28, pp. 255–6; DRGR, II.33–4, pp. 44–5: ‘qui saepius navali commercio Panormum lucratum venire soliti erant, quasdam injurias … navali exercitu undique conflato’; Annales Pisani, RIS, 6:2, 1936, ad an. 1063, pp. 5–6.

48. DRGR, II.35, p. 45: ‘Gosilanum una die, secunda Brucatum, tertia Cefaludam praedatum aciem dirigit’; F. D’Angelo, G. Bresc-Bautier, P. Beck et al., Brucato. Histoire et archéologie d’un habitat médiéval en Sicile, École Française de Rome, 1984, pp. 39–40.

49. DRGR, II.35, p. 46; HS, col. 762.

50. DRGR, II.36, p. 46; Count Stolberg, Travels Through Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and Sicily, vol. 2, trans. T. Holcroft, London, 1897, pp. 149–55 (quote at 153).

51. Al-Muqaddasī, BAS, II, trans. Amari, p. 671: ‘L’acqua batte le mura’.

52. DRGR, II.36, p. 47; Al-Muqaddasī, BAS, II, trans. Amari, p. 672: ‘Petralia … è murata; dentro di essa s’innalza una rôcca, con una chiesa’; DRGR, II.38, p. 48: ‘turribus et propugnaculis extra portam accuratissime firmavit’; A.J. Taylor, ‘Three early castle sites in Sicily, Motta Camastra, Sperlinga and Petralia Soprana’, Chateau Gaillard, 7, 1976, pp. 209–11.

53. DRGR, II.41, p. 50: ‘acieque suorum prudenter ordinata … multitudine’, II.42, p. 50: ‘inscriptis sanguine chartulis’.

54. Ibn al-Aṯīr, BAS, I, pp. 448–9.

55. LP, ad an. 1071, p. 60; YN, V.27, p. 253, VI.14, p. 277; DRGR, II.45, p. 52: ‘magno equitatu … peditumque copiis’; GRW, III.164–5, p. 172, 187–8, p. 174, 235–6, p. 176, 344–5, p. 182

56. GRW, III.229–54, pp. 176–8; DRGR, II.45, pp. 52–3; Stanton, Norman Naval Operations, p. 45.

57. DRGR, II.45, pp. 52–3: ‘ab oceano urbem navibus obsidens … navalis exercitus adjacebat’; YN, VI.19, p. 279: ‘l’autre part de la cité’; GRW, III.255–83, p. 178: ‘Armatos equites’ (259).

58. DRGR, II.45, p. 53; III.1, p. 57: ‘minimam partem’; IV.16, p. 95: ‘desiderantibus se fidelibus suis plurima praeda onustus repraesentat’; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 161; J. Johns, Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Dīwān, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 33–6; Metcalfe, Muslims and Christians in Norman Sicily, pp. 11, 34–5.

59. DRGR, III.1, p. 57, 7, pp. 60–1, 9, p. 61.

60. DRGR, III.10, p. 62: ‘familiari militia comitis … magno electorum militum exercitu … cum paucis Cathaniam elabitur’; HS, col. 767.

61. DRGR, III.11, pp. 62–3: ‘Classis magni Alexandri non fuit hac pulchrior … [63] cum sibi familiaribus consilio habito … decem millia’; HS, col. 767–8.

62. DRGR, III.11–2, pp. 63–4: ‘duodecim famosissima castra’.

63. Al-Muqaddasī, BAS, II, p. 672; Metcalfe, Muslims of Medieval Italy, pp. 10–15, 25–32, 55–6.

64. DRGR, III.15–9, pp. 66–8: ‘armamentis exportatis … montis magno’ (67); HS, cols. 773–4; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 169.

65. DRGR, III.20–1, pp. 69–70: ‘servitium et censum persolvere’ (69).

66. DRGR, III.22–3, pp. 70–1, III.30, pp. 75–6: ‘callidissimus et militari exercitio deditus’.

67. DRGR, III.31, p. 76: ‘Gregarius … miles … legalitatem suam servans … homini suo’, III.32, p. 77: ‘clavem Siciliae’; Matthew, Norman Kingdom, p. 260.

68. DRGR, III.36, pp. 78–9.

69. Thuc. 7.59; DRGR, IV.1–2, pp. 85–6: ‘Rasesalix’ (86) = HS, col. 775: ‘Rasalinum’; Ibn al-Aṯīr, BAS, I, trans. Amari, pp. 366–7: ‘ma i Rûm loro impedirono l’uscita, mettendosi con l’armata alla bocca del porto’, pp. 379, 388; HS, col. 774–5. The pertinent chapter and some of the subsequent ones concerning events at Agrigento and Enna, were dated according to Malaterra’s incorrect assertion that Guiscard died in 1084 rather than 1085 (III.41, p. 82).

70. Thuc. 7.22: ‘λιμένος … τοῦ ἐλάσσονος, οὗ ἦν καὶ τὸ νεώριον αὐτοῖς’; Al-Muqaddasī, BAS, II, trans. Amari, p. 672: ‘due città congiunte l’una all’altra; ha un porto maraviglioso’; DRGR, IV.2, p. 86; Peter of Palermo, in The History of the Tyrants of Sicily by ‘Hugo Falcandus’, 1154–69, trans. Loud & T. Wiedemann, pp. 252–63, at 257; HS, col. 775: ‘magnanimus Comes’.

71. DRGR, IV.5–6, p. 87–8; HS, col. 776; Ibn al-Aṯīr, BAS, I, pp. 367–80.

72. DRGR, IV.13–4, pp. 92–3: ‘extremae dementiae esse’; HS, col. 776.

73. DRGR, IV.3, pp. 86–7, 16, p. 94: ‘transmarina regna’; Annales Pisani, RIS, 6:2, 1936, ad an. 1088, pp. 6–7.

74. DRGR, IV.16, p. 95; E. Bradford, The Great Siege: Malta 1565, Hertfordshire, 1961, pp. 22–3, 230–1.

75. DRGR, IV.15, p. 94, 16, pp. 95–6, 22, p. 100, 26, p. 104; Matthew, Norman Kingdom, pp. 86–97, 260–2; Johns, Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily, pp. 39–143; H. Houben, Roger II of Sicily, trans. Loud & D. Milburn, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 23, 25, 33, 150–1.

76. YN, IV.37–9, pp. 208–11; Constantine VII, CFHB, 1, 13, pp. 70–6; DRGR, III.13, p. 65; GRW, II.426–8, 154: ‘quia Galli / Esse videbantur gens effera, barbara, dira, / Mentis inhumanae’; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 128; Brown, ‘Perceptions of Byzantine Virtus in Southern Italy, from the Eighth to Eleventh Centuries’, in Questions of Gender in Byzantine Society, ed. B. Neil & L. Garland, Surrey, 2013, pp. 11–28, at 22–3.

77. YN, IV.3, p. 185, V.6, p. 228: ‘trebuc et autres engins’. ‘Trebuchet’ was used anachronistically by the 14th-century French translator; the term was not coined until a century after Amatus completed his history.

78. LP, ad an. 1061–4, p. 59; ABC, ad an. 1063–4, p. 152, 1068, p. 153: ‘intravit Juvenacie’; GRW, III.362–5, p. 184; DRGR, II.39, p. 48: ‘servitium … auxilium … ab hostibus lucratus fuerat’; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, pp. 131–3.

79. ABC, ad an. 1064, p. 152; Kedrenos, CSHB, 2, pp. 721–2: ‘δοὺξ τῆς Ἰταλίας ὁ Περηνός … τοῦ Δυρραχίου δούξ’ (722); Kühn, Die Byzantinische Armee im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert, pp. 214, 220, 238.

80. ABC, ad an. 1064, p. 152: ‘multi nobiles perrexerunt Perino in Durrachio pro tollendum honores … sacramentum … Chelandie incenderunt’ (Chelandie is presumably singular, for the same annals later used chelandia to denote multiple ships [1071]); YN, V.4, pp. 224–7; DRGR, II.37, p. 47; Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 1, pp. 177–85; W. Jahn, Untersuchungen zur normannischen Herrschaft in Süditalien (1040–1100), Frankfurt, 1989, pp. 101–5.

81. LP, ad an. 1066, p. 59: ‘Lofredus comes, filius Petronii, voluit ire in Romaniam cum multa gente, sed obstitit illi quidam ductor Graecorum nomine Mambrita’ (cf. GRW, III.9, p. 164: ‘Romaniae [= Anatolia]’ & GF, IX.21, pp. 51–3: ‘Romania [= Anatolia]’), ad an. 1071, p. 60, GRW, III.395, p. 184: ‘Dalmaticos sine velle suo temptavit adire’; Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 1, p. 179, 183; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 133.

82. GRW, II.485–539, pp. 158–60: ‘Barenses austera duci responsa dederunt … crates … turrim … petraria’ (494–500); DRGR, II.40, pp. 48–9: ‘arietes’; YN, V.27, pp. 248–9: ‘chastelz et divers tribuque’; LP, ad an. 1071, p. 60.

83. GRW, II.520–34, p. 160; DRGR, II.40, pp. 48–9, 43, p. 50; YN, V.27, pp. 248–54; LP, ad an. 1071, p. 60; ABC, ad an. 1069, p. 153: ‘multi homines necati sunt, & alii compraehenserunt [sic] Franci, & truncaverunt’; HS, col. 763: ‘Cives … jactu lapidum, atque telorum creberrimo’.

84. GRW, III.111–31, p. 170; DRGR, II.43, p. 51: ‘quia strenuus armis et consilio callens erat … mirifice graeco more praeparatum’; YN, I.9, pp. 16–7 (Roussel); V.27, pp. 253; ABC, ad an. 1071, p. 153; Michael Attaleiates, CSHB, p. 148 (Roussel); Kedrenos, CSHB, 2, p. 695, 708 (Roussel); HS, col. 764: ‘Dux Corinthiorum’.

85. DRGR, II.43, p. 51: ‘plurimo remige’; ABC, ad. an 1069, p. 153, 1079–80, p. 153, 1083, p. 154; LP, ad an. 1071, p. 60: ‘intravit’, 1079: ‘Barum rebellavit, eiecto exinde praesidio ducis’, 1080, 1083, p. 61.

86. YN, III.45, pp. 161–2, IV.22–3, pp. 197–8, VIII.2–8, pp. 339–49, 12, pp. 352–3; DRGR, I.15, p. 16, III.2–3, p. 58; HS, col. 776; V. Ramseyer, The Transformation of a Religious Landscape: Medieval Southern Italy, 850–1150, New York, 2006, p. 133.

87. Gregory VII, MGH ES, 2:1, I.3, p. 4, I.18, pp. 29–30, I.46, pp. 70–1: ‘ut pacatis Normannis transeamus Constantinopolim’, II.31, p. 166; YN, VII.12, pp. 304–5, VIII.2–8, pp. 339–49; GRW, III.412–20, p. 186; DRGR, III.2–3, p. 58; HS, col. 776; Cowdrey, ‘Pope Gregory VII’s Crusading Plans of 1074,’ in Outremer: Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem presented to Joshua Prawer, ed. B.Z. Kedar et al., Jerusalem, 1982, pp. 27–40; Age of Abbot Desiderius, pp. 123–6; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, pp. 137–9, 142; Brown, ‘The Gesta Roberti Wiscardi’, pp. 163–5.

88. Gregory VII, MGH ES, 2:1, I.46, p. 70: ‘pacatis Normannis’; YN, VII.26, pp. 318–20; LP, ad an. 1076, p. 60; Kedrenos, CSHB, 2, p. 720; AK, I.10, pp. 34–5; Chalandon, Essai dur le Règne d’Alexis I^er Comnene, Paris, 1900, p. 60: ‘ΡΟUΜΠΕΡΤΩ ΝΩΒΕΛΛΙΣΙΜΟΣ ΔΟUΚΙ ΙΤΑΛΙΑC ΚΑΛΛΑΒΡΙΑΣ ΣCΙΚΕΑΛΙΑC’; H. Bibicou, ‘Une page d’histoire diplomatique de Byzance au XI siècle: Michel VII Doukas, Robert Guiscard et la pension de dignitaries’, Byzantion, 29–30, 1959–60, pp. 43–75, at 44–7; Cowdrey, Age of Abbot Desiderius, pp. 125–6; von Falkenhausen, ‘Olympias, eine normannische Prinzessin in Konstantinopel’, in Bisanzio e l’Italia, Raccolti di studi in memoria di Agostino Pertusi, Milano, 1982, pp. 56–72.

89. GRW, III.425–6, p. 186: ‘Fervidus innumera comitatus gente Salernum | Dux adit, et terrae parat et maris obsidionem’; 448, p. 188: ‘…non hac munitior arce | Omnibus Italiae regionibus ulla videtur’; 462: ‘spoliatus honore Salerni’; AC, ad an. 1076, p. 190; YN, VIII.14–31, pp. 354–72; DRGR, III.4, pp. 58–9; CMC, III.67, p. 449; H. Kuromiya, Stalin, London, 2005, p. 160.

90. ABe, ad an. 1073, 1077, p. 181; AC, ad an. 1077–8 p. 190; Gregory VII, MGH ES, 2:2, V.14a, p. 371: ‘omnes Normannos, qui invadere terram sancti Petri laborant’, VIII.1a, p. 515, 1b, p. 516: ‘quam iniuste tenes’, IX.27, p. 610: ‘carissimus noster Salernitanus princeps’; YN, VIII.25, pp. 366–7, 32–3, pp. 372–3; AT, III.19, p. 69: ‘inexpugnabilis … famis; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, pp. 141–2.

Chapter 4

1. Gregory VII, MGH ES, 2:2, VIII.1a, pp. 514–5, 6, pp. 523–4; GRW, IV.163, p. 224: ‘seductor’; AK, I.12, p. 40: ‘ψευδοβασιλεύς’; DRGR, III.13, p. 65; LP, ad an. 1080, p. 60; EH, vol. 4, VII, p. 12.

2. AK, I.15, p. 50: ‘βάρβαρον … τοῦ ῥωμαΐκοῦ δήμου καὶ τοῦ στρατεύματος’; Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol 1, p. 258; W.B. McQueen, ‘Relations between the Normans and Byzantium 1071–1112’, Byzantion, 56, 1986, 427–76, esp. 439–40; R. Upsher Smith, ‘Nobilissimus and Warleader: The Opportunity and the Necessity behind Robert Guiscard’s Balkan Expeditions’, Byzantion, 70, 2001, 507–26; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 83.

3. Byrennios, CFHB, 9, IV.11, p. 277; AK, I.2–4, pp. 13–7, 6, pp. 24–5, III.4, p. 97; Zonaras, CSHB, 3, XVIII.21, p. 733; GRW, IV.155–9, p. 212; EH, vol. 4, VII, p. 14; Haldon, The Byzantine Wars, Stroud, 2008, pp. 182–3; K.N. Ciggaar, Western Travellers to Constantinople. The West and Byzantium, 962–1204: Cultural and Political Relations, Leiden, 1996, p. 142 & figs. 8a-b.

4. AK, III.10, pp. 112–4, V.iii, p. 146; Henry IV, in MGH Deutsches Mittelalter. Kritische Studientexte (dt. MA), 1, p. 15: ‘non apostolo, sed falso monacho’.

5. EH, vol. 4, VII, p. 16; CMC, III.49, p. 429; DRGR, III.24, p. 71, 30, p. 75: ‘Siciliensi comite Rogerio apud Calabriam et Apuliam fraternis negotiis – uti suis – intento’; HS, col. 770: ‘armigeri’; Chalandon, Essai dur le Règne d’Alexis I^er Comnene, p. 65; Taviani-Carozzi, La terreur du monde, p. 437; R. Willoughby, ‘The Shock of the New’, History Today, 49:8, 1999, p. 39; Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 1081–1180, p. 60; Haldon, The Byzantine Wars, p. 188.

6. AK, I.16, pp. 50–1, III.12, p. 117: ‘τε τοὺς δρόμωνας ἵππους τὲ καὶ ἐνόπλους ἱππέας εἰσελάσας’, IV.5, p. 130: ‘τοῖς Δαλμάταις’; DRGR, III.14, p. 66: ‘Classis adaptatur, non navis sola paratur’; GRW, IV.134–7, p. 210; ABC, ad an. 1081, p. 153; LP, ad an. 1081, p. 60; Bryennios, CFHB, 9, p. III.1, pp. 209–11: ‘Χωροβάτοι καὶ Διοκλεῖς’; P. Stephenson, Byzantium’s Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204, Cambridge, 2004, pp. 142–7.

7. DRGR, III.24, p. 71: ‘Post … ubi fluvius Bayosae in mare defluit, placido litori transfertur’; GRW, IV.200–7, p. 214, 218–24 & 231–4, p. 216; LP, ad an. 1081, p. 60; ABC, ad an. 1081, p. 153; AK, I.16, pp. 50–1, III.12, pp. 116–8: ‘κατά τι ἀκρωτήριον Γλῶσσαν καλούμενον’ (117); Stanton, Norman Naval Operations, p. 51.

8. DRGR, III.24, pp. 71–2; GRW, IV.206, p. 214, 252–6, p. 218; AK, I.16, pp. 50–1, III.12, pp. 116–8, IV.1, p. 120: ‘συμμάχους’; Kinnamos, CSHB, III.6, p. 102; Taviani-Carozzi, La terreur du monde, p. 442; Stephenson, Byzantium’s Balkan Frontier, p. 162; N.G.L. Hammond, A History of Macedonia: 336–167 BC, Oxford, 1988, pp. 423–6; O. Pearson, Albania in Occupation and War: From Fascism to Communism, 1940–45, vol. 2, New York, 2005, p. 274.

9. AK, IV.2, p. 122–3: ‘λεγόμενον πελαγολιμένα’ (123); LP, ad an. 1081, pp. 60–1.

10. AK, IV.3, p. 124; GRW, IV.300–8, p. 220; DRGR, III.26, pp. 72–3; Constantine VII, CFHB, 1, 13, p. 68; Stanton, Norman Naval Operations, pp. 52–3; Theotokis, Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, pp. 152–3.

11. GRW, IV.377–80, p. 224: ‘flumine’, AK, IV.6, p. 133: ‘ἁλυκὰς’; Early Albania: A Reader of Historical Texts, 11th–17th Centuries, ed. O. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 2003, p. 60. For a detailed plan of the fortifications based on recent archaeological work, see Stephenson, Byzantium’s Balkan Frontier, p. 162.

12. AK, IV.1, p. 120: ‘λιθοβόλοις’ (see Appendix), XIII.3, p. 392: ‘ἕνδεκα πόδας’, IV.4–5, pp. 128–9; GRW, IV.248–71, p. 218.

13. AK, IV.6, p. 133; GRW, IV.366–80, p. 224; EH, vol. 4, VII, p. 16: ‘qui perempto Heraldo rege cum proceribus regni Albionem reliquerant’; Shepard, ‘The English and Byzantium: A Study of Their Role in the Byzantine Army in the Later Eleventh Century’, Traditio, 29, 1973, pp. 53–92.

14. DRGR, III.27, p. 74; EH, vol. 4, VII, p. 32; AK, I.6, p. 24, IV.6, pp. 132–4: ‘ἱκανοὺς εἶχε στρατιώτας τῆς τοχείας’ (133), ‘πελεκοφόροι’ (134), IV.4, pp. 126–7: ‘τοῦ ὁπλιτικοῦ παντὸς’, II.8, p. 77: ‘δορυφόρων’, IV.4, p. 127: ‘τῶν Φραγγικῶν ταγμάτων ὁ Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Οὐμπερτόπουλος’, X.3, p. 289; Shepard, ‘Uses of the Franks’, p. 293, esp. n. 79 (cf. Bryennios, CFHB, 9, IV.4, pp. 265–7; AK, X.3, p. 289).

15. AK, IV.1, p. 120: ‘ἱππέων καὶ πεζῶν’; GRW, III.576–7, p. 196: ‘bella pedestria’, IV.373–4, p. 224, 472–3, p. 230; Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 1081–1180, p. 62; Haldon, The Byzantine Wars, pp. 188–9.

16. AK, IV.6, p. 132: ‘ἐκ μικροῦ διαστήματος’, p. 133: ‘περὶ τὸ ἄκρον τῆς παρατάξεως τῆς τοῦ Ναμπίτου προσέβαλον’, XV.3, pp. 468–9; NP, I.9, p. 18: ‘ἔμπροσθεν τῆς παρατάξεως τῶν ὁπλιτῶν’, I.12, p. 18: ‘συμβάλλωσι μετὰ τῶν καταφράκτων ἐναντίων καὶ περισπῶσιν αὐτούς’; DRGR, III.27, 74: ‘Waringos … imperatore primitias congressus expetentes’ (lit. ‘the Varangians asked for the first fruits of the clash’); Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 1081–1180, pp. 64–5; Haldon, The Byzantine Wars, pp. 188, 190; Theotokis, Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, p. 156.

17. AK, IV.6, p. 132: ‘τῆς φάλαγγος τοῦ Ἀμικέτου … πεζοὶ καὶ ἱππεῖς’, I.5, p. 21; Bryennios, CFHB, 9, IV.4, p. 265; GRW, IV.372, p. 224: ‘Agmina plura’, 375–8: ‘Ipsaque concursu primo terretur equestris | Gens ducis, hostilis dum praegravat impetus illam. | … angustos… | …locos…’, 383: ‘Grando’.

18. GRW, IV.389–405, pp. 224–6; DRGR, III.27, p. 74: ‘nudo latere’; AK, IV.6, p. 134: ‘τινὰς τῶν πεζῶν’; Theotokis, Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, p. 157.

19. AK, IV.6, p. 134: ‘τῆς ῥωμαϊκῆς φάλαγγος καρτερῶς πρὸς αὐτοὺς ἀπεμάχοντο. ὁ δε Ῥομπέρτος καθάπέρ τις πτερωτὸς ἱππότης σὺν ταῖς λοιπαῖς δυνάμεσι κατὰ τῆς ῥωμαϊκῆς φάλαγγος ἐλᾷ καὶ ὠθεῖται ταύτην καὶ εἰς μέρη πολλὰ διασπᾷ’.

20. AK, IV.6, pp. 134–5: ‘καθάπέρ τις πύργος ἀκλόνητος … [135] δόρατα μακρὰ ἐναγκαλισάμενοι’; Choniates, CSHB, II.4, p. 110–1; A. Kazhdan, ‘Latins and Franks in Byzantium: Perception and Reality from the Eleventh to Twelfth Century’, in The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World, ed. A.E. Laiou & R.P. Mottahedeh, Washington D.C., 2001, pp. 83–100, at 94.

21. GRW, IV.355–6, p. 222: ‘Is licet egregios equites sibi sciret adesse, | Nil ineundo tamen temerarius esse volebat’, 362, p. 224: ‘Hostiles cuneos’, 414, p. 226; LP, ad an. 1082, p. 61; EH, vol. 4, VII, p. 18: ‘ingens detrimentum’; AK, IV.6, pp. 134–5.

22. AK, IV.8, p. 140, V.1–3, pp. 141–6; GRW, IV.472–4, p. 230: ‘Dux Cusentinos quosdam, quos praefore cursu | Noverat, elegit; quosdam simul his sociavit | Electos equites …’.

23. DRGR, III.29, p. 75, 33–4, p. 77–8; GRW, IV.506–27, pp. 230–2; LP, ad an. 1082, p. 61; AK, V.3, pp. 147–9.

24. AK, V.4, pp. 149–50: ‘ἀκρόπολιν’ (149), ‘ἐξ ἐκατέρου μέρους βαλλόμενος’ (150); GRW, V.1–18, p. 236; Theotokis, Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, p. 168. Komnene did not specify the projectiles hurled, but the verb ballō (throw, hurl, shoot) cannot be taken to denote lance thrusts, nor does it mean ‘attacked’ as Sewter translates it. Dawes, who always followed the Greek more closely, opted for ‘darts thrown at him from before and behind’: E.R.A. Sewter, The Alexiad, London, 1969, p. 164; E. Dawes, The Alexiad, London, 1928, p. 123.

25. AK, V.4–5, pp. 151–54: ‘τριβόλους … σιδηρᾶς κατασκευάσας’ (151).

26. AK, V.5, pp. 153–7; GRW, V.25–30, p. 236; A. Savvides, The Norman Capture of Italy and the First Two Norman Invasions in Byzantium, Leuven, 2007, p. 59.

27. AK, V.6–7, pp. 157–60; GRW, V.30–74, pp. 238–40.

28. AK, V.7, pp. 160–1; GRW, V.75–6, p. 240.

29. GRW, IV.313–6, p. 220, V.80–105, pp. 240–2.

30. AK, VI.1, pp. 168–70: ‘ἑλεπόλεις καὶ τὰ πετροβόλα’ (168).

31. Gregory VII, MGH ES, 2:1, II.55a, pp. 202–4; GRW, IV.14–70, pp. 204–6, 559–62, p. 234; V.104–17, p. 242; DRGR, III.35, p. 78, 37, p. 79; CMC, III.50, pp. 430–3; Davis, A History of Medieval Europe: From Constantine to Saint Louis, 3rd edn., London, 2013, pp. 152 (quote), 237–8, 243–53, 267–74.

32. GRW, IV.528–46, pp. 232–4; LP, ad an. 1082–3, p. 61: ‘plus quam triginta milia solidorum Romanis’; ABC, ad an. 1083–4, p. 154; CMC, III.50, pp. 430–3.

33. GRW, IV.565–66, p. 234; DRGR, III.37, pp. 79–80: ‘sub aquae-ductu juxta Tiberim’ (79); LP, ad an. 1084, p. 61: ‘multitudine Normannorum, Longobardorum aliarumque gentium’; Landulf, MGH SS, 8, II.33, p. 100; EH, vol. 4, VII, p. 22: ‘repentini certaminis’; L.I. Hamilton, ‘Memory, Symbol, and Arson: Was Rome “Sacked” in 1084?’, Speculum, 78:2, 2003, pp. 378–99, at 385–6, 394–6.

34. GRW, IV.554–5, p. 234: ‘quibusdam | Aedibus exustis’; DRGR, III.37, p. 79; EH, vol. 4, VII, p. 24; Hamilton, ‘Was Rome “Sacked” in 1084?’, pp. 396–9; P. Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire, Oxford, 2006, p. 343.

35. GRW, IV.556–64, p. 234, V.143–98, pp. 244–6; DRGR, III.37, p. 80; LP, ad an. 1084, p. 61; AK, VI.2–5, pp. 170–5; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, p. 222.

36. LP, ad an. 1085, p. 61: ‘Caesi sunt in ea pugna plus quam mille hominum, praeterea naves quinque captae; duae cum hominibus submersae sunt, ita ut qui gladium potuerunt evadere bellatoris, pelagi eos vorago glutiret’.

37. LP, ad an. 1085, p. 62: ‘grandi apparatu navium’; ABC, ad an. 1085, p. 154; DRGR, III.40, pp. 81–2; AK, VI.5, pp. 175–7; A. Gadolin, ‘Alexis I Comnenus and the Venetian Trade Privileges: A New Interpretation’, Byzantion, 50, 1980, pp. 439–46, at 446; O. Tůma, ‘The Dating of Alexius’s Chrysobull to the Venetians: 1082, 1084, or 1092?’, Byzantinoslavica, 42, 1981, pp. 171–85.

38. GRW, V.205–28, pp. 246–8; LP, ad an. 1085, p. 62: ‘profluvio ventris’; EH, vol. 4, VII, p. 28; AK, IV.3, p. 125, VI.6, p. 179; Theotokis, Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, p. 183; Dante, The Divine Comedy, 3 vols., 1, trans. D.l. Sayers, London, 1949, p. 87; R. S. Bray, Armies of Pestilence: The Impact of Disease on History, Cambridge, 1996, pp. 187–92 (on other instances of camp-based diseases).

39. GRW, V.241–54, pp. 248–50: ‘difficilem facilem facit arte laborem’ [244]; LP, ad an. 1085, p. 62; AK, IV.3, pp. 125–6; Kühn, Die Byzantinische Armee im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert, pp. 240–1; Theotokis, Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, p. 182.

40. GRW, V.312–3, p. 252: ‘Filius ecce lupis sinitur rapiendus et uxor | Et populus, nunquam sine te securus habendus’.

41. GRW, V.337–404, pp. 254–8; LP, ad an. 1085, p. 62; EH, vol. 4, VII, p. 38; AK, VI.6, pp. 179–80.

Chapter 5

1. AK, VI.9, pp. 186–7, VII.8, pp. 222–3, VIII.3–5, pp. 242–9, X.2–4, pp. 284–95; DRGR, IV.13, pp. 92–3; EH, vol. 4, VII, p. 14; ABe, ad an. 1089, p. 182; Gregory VII, MGH ES, 2:1, II.31, p. 166; Bernold, MGH SS, 5, pp. 450, 462; Treadgold, Byzantine State and Society, p. 616; D. C. Munro, ‘Did the Emperor Alexius I Ask for Aid to the Council of Piacenza, 1095?’, The American Historical Review, 27:4, 1922, 731–3.

2. LP, ad an. 1096, p. 62: ‘… subito inspiratione Dei Boamundus cum aliis comitibus et plus quam 500 equitibus, facientes sibi signum crucis super pannos in humero dextro, reliquerunt obsidionem; et transfretantes perrexerunt in regiam urbem, quatenus cum Alexii imperatoris auxilio bellandum cum paganis pergerent Hierusalem ad sanctum sepulchrum domini Iesu Christi, redemptoris nostri’.

3. DRGR, IV.24, p. 102; GF, I.4, p. 7.

4. AK, X.5, p. 298; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, VI, p. 246; France, ‘Anna Comnena, the Alexiad and the First Crusade’, Reading Medieval Studies, 10, 1984, pp. 20–38, esp. 21.

5. GF, I.3, p. 6: ‘iniquus imperator’, I.4, p. 9, II.6–7, pp. 12–4; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, I, p. 236, II, p. 238; Peter Tudebode, RHC OCC, 3, I.6, p. 14, I.10, p. 17, II.4–5, pp. 19–20; GT, XIII, p. 614: ‘triformis Chymera monstrum crudelius non fuit’, XI, p. 613: ‘iniquae Spingos ambages’; B. Leib, Rome, Kiev et Byzance a la fin du XI^e Siècle, Paris, 1924, p. 192; France, ‘Anna Comnena, the Alexiad and the First Crusade’, pp. 29–31; Shepard, ‘When Greek meets Greek: Alexius Comnenus and Bohemund in 1097–98’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 12, 1988, pp. 185–277, esp. 234–6; “‘Father’ or ‘scorpion’? Style and substance in Alexios’s diplomacy”, Belfast Byzantine Texts and Translations, 4.1, 1996, pp. 68–132, esp. 104–8; C. Tyerman, God’s War, London, 2007, p. 120.

6. GT, XVI, p. 617: ‘Gallia certavit, Graecia adjuvit, Deus perpetravit’; Stephen of Chartres, RHC OCC, 3, pp. 885–7; GF, VI.16, p. 34; AK, XI.4, pp. 332–3; T. Asbridge, The First Crusade: A New History, London, 2005, p. 120.

7. GF, VI.26, p. 34, IX.27, p. 63; GT, LXXII, p. 658–9; AK, XI.4, pp. 332–3, XI.6, p. 338; France, ‘The Departure of Tatikios from the Crusader Army’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 44, 1971, pp. 131–47.

8. GT, LIV, p. 647, LVIII, p. 649; WT, 1:1, XIV.24, pp. 641–2.

9. GF, I.4, pp 8–9: ‘Quapropter apprehendebamus boues, equos et asinos, et omnia quae inueniebamus … combussimus castrum cum habitatoribus suis.’ (8); GT, IV, pp. 607–8: ‘grandinem’ (607).

10. GF, II.6–7, pp. 11–4, VIII.20, p. 46; Historia Peregrinorum, RHC OCC, 3, 67, p. 198; AK, V.6, p. 158, X.11, p. 320: ‘Κρῆτα κρητίζων’ (cf. ET, 63, p. 80: ‘Ἐκρήτιζε … Κρῆτα’); Shepard, ‘When Greek meets Greek’, pp. 251–9; G.T. Beech, ‘A Norman-Italian Adventurer in the East: Richard of Salerno 1097–1112’, ANS, 15, 1993, pp. 26–40, at 28.

11. GF, III.9, pp. 18–20, IX.21, p. 49: ‘lanceas neque sagittas neque ulla arma timebant, quia omnes erant undique cooperti ferro et equi eorum’; GT, XX-III, pp. 620–2: ‘spiculatores’ (622); FC, I.11, p. 334; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, IV, p. 240: ‘Turci … lanceis’; Gilbert of Mons, Chronique, ed. L. Vanderkindere, Brussels, 1904, 26, p. 175 (cf. AK, XI.2, p. 326).

12. GF, III.9, pp. 18–21; GT, XX-XXXII, pp. 620–9; FC, I.11–2, pp. 334–6; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, IV, pp. 240–1; AK, X.11, p. 320, XI.3, pp. 330–1.

13. GF, IV.10, pp. 23–4; GT, XXXIII-IV, pp. 629–31; AK, XI.2, p. 326.

14. GF, IV.10, pp. 24–5; GT, XXXIV-LXIV, pp. 630–9: ‘admiratus fastigia turrium, spatia moenium, superbiam domorum, tentare vires properat incolarum’ (630–1), ‘arcitenentes man[u]s Turcopoli’ (631); FC, I.14, pp. 337–8.

15. FC, I.15, p. 339: ‘Est nempe Antiochia civitas magna ambitu, muro forti, situ valida; quae etiam ab hostibus externis nunquam poterit comprehendi, si tantum inhabitantes pane muniti eam defendere voluerint’.

16. GF, IV.11, pp. 25–7, V.12, p. 28, X.32, pp. 76–7; GT, XLIV-VIII, pp. 639–42; FC, I.14–5, pp. 337–40; France, Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade, Cambridge, 1994, pp. 190–3; Asbridge, First Crusade, pp. 140–52, 158–61; Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 131–35.

17. GF, V.12–VI.14, pp. 28–32; GT, XLVIII-LX, pp. 642–50; FC, I.15–6, pp. 339–42; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, V-VI, pp. 242–5, VII, p. 248; IQ, pp. 42–3; AK, XI.1–2, pp. 324–5: ‘παντοῖα … ἑλεπόλεων’ (325); Smail, Crusading Warfare 1097–1193, pp. 170–1; Asbridge, First Crusade, pp. 160–1; Tyerman, God’s War, p. 135.

18. GF, VI.14–7, pp. 33–7: ‘qualiter leo perpessus famem per tres aut quatuor dies’ (37); GT, LIV-VI, pp. 646–8; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, VII, pp. 246–7.

19. GF, VI.17–VII.18, pp. 37–42: ‘… circumcingendo undique nostros, iaculando, sagittando, uulnerando, et crudeliter detruncando … Fueruntque in illa die martyrizati … plus quam mille’ (40); Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, VII-VIII, pp. 247–51; Asbridge, First Crusade, pp. 188–96; Rogers, Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century, pp. 35–7.

20. GF, VI.26, p. 34, IX.27, p. 63; GT, LXXII, p. 658–9; AK, XI.4, pp. 332–3, 6, p. 338; IQ, p. 44; Ibn al-Aṯīr, in Arab Historians of the Crusades, p. 6; Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 141–2; R-J. Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States 1096–1204, Oxford, 1993, pp. 33–7.

21. GF, VIII.20, pp. 44–8; GT, LXXIII-LXXX, pp. 659–63; FC, I.17, pp. 342–3; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, IX, pp. 251–3.

22. Albert of Aachen, RHC OCC, 4, IV.27, p. 407; FC, I.24, p. 351; GT, LXI, p. 651: ‘quantum anati gallina’, LXXVIII, p. 662: ‘Caco-Alemanni’; Otto, ‘Two Cities’, MGH SRGius, 45, VII.5, p. 315: ‘Francos Romanos et Teutonicos … amaris et invidiosis iocis frequenter rixari solent’.

23. GF, IX.21–6, pp. 49–63; GT, LXIII-VIII, pp. 652–6; FC, I.19, pp. 345–6, I.24, p. 351; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, IX, pp. 252–3.

24. GF, IX.21, p. 49, IX.28, pp. 65–7; GT, LXXXI-II, pp. 663–5; FC, I.21, p. 347, I.24, p. 351; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, X-I, pp. 256–9; Ibn al-Aṯīr, in Arab Historians of the Crusades, pp. 7–8; Asbridge, First Crusade, pp. 226–31 (quote at 227), cf. J Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A History, 2nd edn., London, 2005, p. 39.

25. GF, IX.29, pp. 68–9; GT, LXXXV-VI, pp. 666–7; FC, I.22–3, p. 348–9; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, XI-II, pp. 258–60; Ibn al-Aṯīr, in Arab Historians of the Crusades, p. 8.

26. GF, IX.29, pp. 69–70; GT, LXXXVII-XC, pp. 667–72; FC, I.23, p. 349–50; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, XII, pp. 259–61; Ibn al-Aṯīr, in Arab Historians of the Crusades, p. 9.

27. GF, IX.29, pp. 70–1, X.30, p. 75: ‘quod timebat se peierare erga imperatorem’ (75), X.34, pp. 80–1; FC, I.23–4, pp. 350–2; Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, XIII-IV, pp. 261–72, XVIII, p. 286; IQ, p. 45; Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 149–50.

28. GT, CXLI, pp. 704–5; FC, I.35, pp. 368–9; Matthew of Edessa, RHC ARM, I, pp. 51–2; AK, XI.7, pp. 343–5, 9, pp. 348–50; IQ, pp. 49–50; Ibn al-Aṯīr, in Arab Historians of the Crusades, p. 13; Asbridge, The Creation of the Principality of Antioch 1098–1130, Woodbridge, 2000, pp. 50–1.

29. GT, CXXXIX, pp. 703–4, CXLIII-VI, pp. 706–9; FC, II.3, p. 377, 7, pp. 384–5, 23, p. 407; AK, XI.7, p. 345; IQ, p. 51; Fink, ‘The Foundation of the Latin States, 1099–1118’, pp. 376–82.

30. GT, CXLVII-L, pp. 706–11; FC, II.27, pp. 408–9; Albert of Aachen, RHC OCC, 4, IX.39, pp. 614–5; Matthew of Edessa, RHC ARM, I, pp. 71–3; IQ, pp. 60–1; Ibn al-Aṯīr, in Arab Historians of the Crusades, pp. 15–6, 18–20; Fink, ‘The Foundation of the Latin States, 1099–1118’, p. 389; Asbridge, Principality of Antioch 1098–1130, pp. 53–6.

31. GT, CLI-V, pp. 712–5; FC, II.30, p. 411; Albert of Aachen, RHC OCC, 4, IX.47, pp. 620–1; AK, XI.11, pp. 354–5; IQ, pp. 69–70; Fink, ‘The Foundation of the Latin States, 1099–1118’, pp. 390, 392, Asbridge, Principality of Antioch 1098–1130, p. 56.

32. GT, CLVI-VII, pp. 715–6; Albert of Aachen, RHC OCC, 4, X.19–24, pp. 640–2, XI.40, p. 682; IQ, pp. 74, 99 (quote); Fink, ‘The Foundation of the Latin States, 1099–1118’, p. 392; Asbridge, Principality of Antioch 1098–1130, p. 60.

33. ABC, ad an. 1106, p. 155; FC, II.29, p. 410; Suger, The Deeds of Louis the Fat, Washington D.C., 1992, 9, p. 45; EH, vol. 3, V, p. 182: ‘in Ierusalem facta est’, vol. 6, XI, pp. 68–72; AK, XII.1, p. 359; P. Charanis, ‘Aims of the Medieval Crusades and How They Were Viewed by Byzantium’, Church History, 21:2, 1952, pp. 123–34, esp. 129; S. Runciman, A History of the Crusades, 3 vols, 2, 1954, pp. 46–9; Angold, The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204, p. 142; Tyerman, God’s War, p. 261, cf. ‘Were There Any Crusades in the Twelfth Century?’, English Historical Review, 110:447, 1995, pp. 553–77, at 559: ‘a final outcome, for all Steven Runciman’s chill condemnation, not necessarily envisaged by the pope’.

34. ABC, ad an. 1108, p. 155; FC, II.38, p. 418; EH, vol. 6, XI, pp. 100–4; AK, XII.1, p. 359, 9, pp. 381–3: ‘πόλιν … διαπόντιον’, XIII.1–2, pp. 384–9, 7, pp. 404–5 (communications and supplies); 4, pp. 396–7 (letters); 6, pp. 400–2 (battle & surprise attacks); 8, p. 406 (guerrilla assaults); IQ, p. 92; Theotokis, Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, pp. 200–14.

35. AK, XIII.8–12, pp. 406–23; ABC, ad an. 1108, p. 155: ‘fecit pacem cum Imperatore’; FC, II.39, p. 418; EH, vol. 6, XI, p. 104; IQ, p. 92; Asbridge, Principality of Antioch 1098–1130, pp. 94–103; Theotokis, Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, pp. 213–4. With the anonymous chronicle of Bari being a case in point, Latin accounts tended to state simply that Bohemond ‘made peace with the Emperor’, whereas al-Qalānisī was more forthcoming: ‘paid homage to him’.

36. Raymond d’Aguilers, RHC OCC, 3, XIV, pp. 272–3; Albert of Aachen, RHC OCC, 4, XI.43–4, pp. 684–5; Matthew of Edessa, RHC ARM, I, p. 95: ‘le vaillant champion du Christ’; IQ, p. 99; Yaha of Antioch, Patrologia Orientalis, 23, p. 457; The First Encyclopaedia of Islam, ed. M.T. Houtsma et al., vol. 7, Leiden, 1993, p. 288; T.S.R. Boase, Kingdoms and Strongholds of the Crusaders, London, 1971, pp. 77–8, 80, 192–3.

37. FC, II.45, pp. 423–4; Albert of Aachen, RHC OCC, 4, XI.40–2, pp. 682–4; Matthew of Edessa, RHC ARM, I, pp. 96–7; IQ, pp. 118–9, 131–2; Kamāl ad-Din, RHC OR, 3, pp. 596–8; UM, pp. 80–1; R.B. Yewdale, Bohemond I, Prince of Antioch, Princeton, 1917, p. 37; Asbridge, Principality of Antioch 1098–1130, pp. 61–2, 65–6.

38. FC, II.53–4, pp. 429–31; WC, I.1–6, pp. 83–94; Matthew of Edessa, RHC ARM, I, pp. 106–7, 109–10, 121–2; Kamāl ad-Din, RHC OR, 3, pp. 614–5; UM, pp. 85–6.

39. FC, II.52, pp. 428–9, III.3–5, pp. 442–3; WC, II.1–6, pp. 100–11: ‘triplici cohorte’ (107); Matthew of Edessa, RHC ARM, I, pp. 122–4; IQ, pp. 159–61; Kamāl ad-Din, RHC OR, 3, pp. 602–19: ‘de Francs, d’Arméniens et d’autres troupes’ (617); France, Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, pp. 217–8, 290.

40. FC, III.4–7, pp. 442–5, IX, pp. 445–6, XI, pp. 447–8, XVI, p. 450, XXV, pp. 457–8, XXXVIII-IX, p. 468–70; WC, II.8–16, pp. 114–32; Matthew of Edessa, RHC ARM, I, pp. 131, 141–4; Kamāl ad-Din, RHC OR, 3, pp. 620–54; UM, pp. 49–51, 131–2; Asbridge, Principality of Antioch 1098–1130, pp. 81–8.

41. WT, 1:1, XIII.22, p. 590, 26, pp. 595–8; Matthew of Edessa, RHC ARM, I, pp. 147–8; UM, pp. 133–4; IQ, pp. 197–8.

42. WT, 1:1, XIII.27, pp. 598–9; RS, p. 420: ‘corpus sine capite inventum est, et sepultum in monasterio sancte Marie’; S. Runciman, A History of the Crusades, vol. 2, pp. 182–3.

43. Kinnamos, CSHB, I.7–8, pp. 16–20; WT, 1:1, XIV.24, pp. 641–2, 30, pp. 651–2: ‘potentissimum orbis terrae principem … [652] tormentis ingentibus … cautes immanissimos, et immensi ponderis’; IQ, pp. 240–1, 245–6; Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 1081–1180, p. 92.

44. Kinnamos, CSHB, I.8, p. 19, 10, pp. 22–5, 28–9; WT, 1:1, XV.1–5, pp. 655–65: ‘funditus dejiciunt’ (656), 19–23, pp. 688–96; UM, pp. 125–6 (quote at 126); IQ, pp. 248–52, 264.

45. Kinnamos, CSHB, II.1, pp. 29–30, 3, pp. 33–5, IV.17–21, pp. 178–88, V.4, pp. 210–1; WT, 1:2, XVI.5, pp. 711–2, XVII.16, pp. 784–6, XVIII.1, pp. 816–7, 10, pp. 834–5, 23–5, pp. 859–64, 28, pp. 868–9, 30, pp. 872–3; IQ, pp. 349, 353–4.

Chapter 6

1. AC, ad an. 1134–5, pp. 191–2; Annales Pisani, RIS, 6:2, 1936, ad an. 1135, p. 9; AT, II.12, pp. 28–9, 66–7, pp. 55–6, III.1–19, pp. 59–70: ‘militum peditumque innumera’ (65); Falco of Benevento, Storia della Monarchia, 1, ed. G. del Re, Napoli, 1845, ad an. 1134–5, pp. 225–8; RS, p. 421; Matthew, Norman kingdom of Sicily, pp. 46–8; Houben, Roger II, p. 66

2. Annales Pisani, RIS, 6:2, 1936, ad an. 1136, pp. 9–10; AT, III.20–8, pp. 70–75: ‘dispertiens’ (71); RS, p. 421.

3. AT, II.34, p. 39: ‘sarracenis’; AC, ad an. 1137, p. 192; Falco of Benevento, Storia della Monarchia, 1, ed. del Re, ad an. 1135–7, pp. 227–9, 232: ‘[228] famis morte malebant, quam sub nefandi Regis potestate colla submittere … [232] castellum’; RS, pp. 421–2; Otto of Freising, ‘Two Cities’, MGH SRGius, 45, VII.20, pp. 338–9; William of Tyre, RHC OCC, 1:1, XIII.19, p. 586; Kinnamos, CSHB, III.1, p. 90: ‘στρατῷ μεγάλῳ’.

4. AC, ad an. 1137, p. 192; Falco of Benevento, Storia della Monarchia, 1, ed. del Re, ad an. 1137, pp. 229, 232–3: ‘et Calabriam’ (232); RS, pp. 422; Otto of Freising, ‘Two Cities’, MGH SRGius, 45, VII.20, pp. 338–9; William of Tyre, RHC OCC, 1:1, XIII.19, p. 586; Kinnamos, CSHB, III.1, p. 90; Matthew, Norman Kingdom of Sicily, pp. 49–50; Houben, Roger II, pp. 68–9.

5. Falco of Benevento, Storia della Monarchia, 1, ed. del Re, ad an. 1137, pp. 235–7; RS, pp. 422–3; AC, ad an. 1137, p. 192; Otto of Freising, ‘Two Cities’, MGH SRGius, 45, VII.22, p. 344; Matthew, Norman Kingdom of Sicily, pp. 49–50; Houben, Roger II, pp. 69–70.

6. YN, VII.30–2, pp. 323–30; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, pp. 142–5.

7. Falco of Benevento, Storia della Monarchia, 1, ed. del Re, ad an. 1140, p. 250: ‘magno cum exercitu militum, et peditum trans civitatem Piscariam misit, ut Provinciam illam suae subjugaret potestati … mille cum militibus, et peditum manu copiosa … timore multo’.

8. Chronicle of Ferraria, in Roger II, ed. & trans. Loud, pp. 247–9; S.D. Goitein, Letters of Medieval Jewish Travellers, Princeton, 1973 (repr. 2015), pp. 323–6 (quote at 325); RS, pp. 423–4; Ibn al-Aṯīr, BAS, I, trans. Amari, pp. 456, 459–91; Ibn Khaldūn, BAS, II, pp. 290–7; Matthew, Norman Kingdom of Sicily, pp. 58–9; Stanton, Norman Naval Operations, pp. 211–3.

9. RS, p. 424; Kinnamos, CSHB, 1836, III.2, p. 91–2; Choniates, CSHB, Man., II.8, pp. 129–30; Odo of Deuil, De profectione Ludovici VII in orientem, ed. & trans. V. Berry, New York, 1948, p. 58; Otto of Freising, ‘Two Cities’, MGH SRGius, 45, VII.28, p. 355; Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 2, p. 135; Guillou, ‘Production and Profits in the Byzantine Province of Italy’, pp. 92–6; J. Herrin, Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire, London, 2008, pp. 52–3, 151; Brown, ‘Perceptions of Byzantine Virtus in Southern Italy’, pp. 22–4; Loud, Roger II, pp. 44, 50.

10. AC, ad an. 1147, p. 192; RS, p. 424: ‘pannos sericos … asportaverunt’; Otto of Freising, ‘Deeds of Frederick’, MGH SRGius, 46, I.34, pp. 53–4; Kinnamos, CSHB, III.2, p. 92, 4–5, pp. 96–101: ‘μέγα’ (97); Choniates, CSHB, Man., II.1–4, pp. 96–113: ‘σχῆμα πύργου’ (109), 8, pp. 130–1; Benjamin of Tudela, in Byzantium: Church, Society, and Civilization Seen through Contemporary Eyes, ed. D.J. Geanakoplos, Chicago, 1984, p. 269 (cf. Choniates, CSHB, Man., II.8, pp. 129–30); Ibn al-Aṯīr, BAS, I, trans. Amari, p. 476: ‘alcune galee dei Rûm’; Andrea Dandolo, RIS, 12, 1938, p. 243; Matthew, Norman Kingdom of Sicily, p. 266; Houben, Roger II of Sicily, pp. 85–6, esp. note 54; Stanton, Norman Naval Operations, pp. 93–102 (quote at 101); Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 1081–1180, p. 113.

11. RS, pp. 424, 428; ‘Hugo Falcandus’, Storia della Monarchia, 1, ed. del Re, p. 292; Annales Pisani, RIS, 6:2, 1936, ad an. 1156, p. 15; William of Tyre, RHC OCC, 1:2, XVIII.7, p. 828; Otto of Freising, ‘Deeds of Frederick’, MGH SRGius, 46, p. 4, II.36, pp. 144–5; Kinnamos, CSHB, III.6–13, pp. 101–21; Choniates, CSHB, Man., II.6, pp. 118–21: ‘ἁδρὸν κοντοφορικὸν’ (121 – not from Venice, as Choniates thought), 7, p. 127 (Angelos).

12. RS, p. 428; Annales Pisani, RIS, 6:2, 1936, ad an. 1156, p. 15; Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.1–4, pp. 134–42: ‘πεζῶν φάλαγγι’ (142); Choniates, CSHB, Man., II.6, p. 121; Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 2, pp. 205–8; C. Brand, Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, New York, 1976, p. 247; Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 1081–1180, pp. 114–5, 117.

13. Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.4, pp. 142–4: ‘λίθους κατὰ τῶν περὶ Ῥιτζάρδον ἠφίεσαν’ (144); Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 2, p. 209.

14. Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.5–6, pp. 145–8: ‘πλήθους σφενδονητῶν ἀναρίθμου’ (146); Chalandon, Domination Normande, vol. 2, pp. 211, 215–6; Brand, Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, p. 248; Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 1081–1180, p. 115.

15. ‘Hugo Falcandus’, Storia della Monarchia, 1, ed. del Re, p. 292: ‘haereditario ad se jure pertinentem’; Annales Casinenses, MGH SS, 19, ad an. 1155, p. 311: ‘cepit omnem principatum Capuae usque Neapolim et Salernum’; RS, p. 428; William of Tyre, RHC OCC, 1:2, XVIII.7, p. 828; Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.6, p. 148; Dokumente zur Geschichte der Kastellbauten Kaiser Friedrichs II. Karls I. und von Anjou, II und Apulia Basilicata, ed. E. Sthamer, 1926 (repr. Tübingen, 1997), no. 737; Castel del Monte: un castello medioevale, ed. R. Licinio, Bari, 2002, pp. 22, 90; D. Abulafia, Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor, London, 1992, pp. 270, 288–9.

16. Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.6, pp. 148–51: ‘δόρατα κραδαῖνον μακρά’ (149).

17. Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.7–9, pp. 151–3; Brand, Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, p. 248.

18. Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.8–10, pp. 153–9.

19. RS, p. 428; Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.10–1, pp. 159–63; Brand, Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, p. 248.

20. RS, p. 428: ‘multo exercitu et stolio’; Annales Pisani, RIS, 6:2, 1936, ad an. 1156, p. 16: ‘XXX galeas’; Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.11–2, pp. 163–6: ‘χελώνην’ (164); ‘Hugo Falcandus’, Storia della Monarchia, 1, ed. del Re, p. 297; Annales Casinenses, MGH SS, 19, ad an. 1156, p. 311.

21. RS, p. 428; Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.13–4, pp. 166–9: ‘τύχη’ (166), ‘ἀβουλία’ (168); Choniates, Man., CSHB, II.7, p. 125; ‘Hugo Falcandus’, Storia della Monarchia, 1, ed. del Re, p. 297; Annales Casinenses, MGH SS, 19, ad an. 1156, p. 311.

22. RS, p. 429; Annales Pisani, RIS, 6:2, 1936, ad an. 1058, p. 17; ET, 14, p. 18, 50–4, pp. 58–66, 123, p. 136: ‘Σαρακηνῶν’, 138, p. 150: ‘ἱπποτοξόται … ψιλῆται … τοῦ ῥιζίκου’ (cf. p. 226); Choniates, CSHB, Andron., I.7, p. 385; Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West 1180–1204, London, 1968, pp. 48–68, 160–3; Matthew, Norman Kingdom of Sicily, p. 277.

23. UM, p. 125, cf. WT, 1:1, XV.1, p. 656: ‘funditus dejiciunt’ (i.e. the walls were ‘utterly destroyed’); Chevedden, ‘The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet’, p. 92, translates majānīq hā’ilah as ‘huge trebuchets’ & see also pp. 84–5, 110–1.

24. Ibn al-Aṯīr, BAS, I, trans. Amari, p. 495–8; ET, 58–88, pp. 72–107: ‘σεισμοῦ θυγάτηρ’ (74), ‘μικρὰ πετροβόλα’ (98); Choniates, CSHB, Andron., I.7–9, pp. 385–401; Cheveden, ‘The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet’, pp. 93–5.

25. Choniates, CSHB, Isaac, I.1–2, pp. 465–72; Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West, pp. 170–1.

26. Choniates, CSHB, Isaac, I.2–3, pp. 473–6; Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West, p. 172.

27. Choniates, CSHB, Isaac, I.5, pp. 483–5; Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West, p. 172.

Appendix

1. C. Allmand, ‘The De Re Militari of Vegetius: A Classical Text in the Middle Ages’, History Today, 54:6, 2004, pp. 20–25; The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville, ed. & trans. S Barney, W.J. Lewis et al, Cambridge, 2006, pp. 24–6.

2. IS, XVIII.7.1–2: ‘Hasta est contus cum ferro … [2] Contum ferrum non habet, sed tantum cuspide acuto est’.

3. IS, XVIII.7.5: ‘Lancea est hasta amentum habens in medio’.

4. IS, XVIII.7.6: ‘Amentum vinculum est iaculorum hastilium qui mediis hastis aptatur … ut iaculetur’.

5. I.e. the throwing spears of Roman legionaries.

6. IS, XVIII.7.9: ‘Pila sunt arma iaculorum atque telorum a torquendo, vel emittendo, vocatae’.

7. I.e. τηλόθεν: ‘from far away’.

8. IS, XVIII.7.10: ‘Telum vocatur secundum Graecam etymologiam, ἀπό τοῦ τηλόθεν, quidquid longe iaci potest’.

9. IS, XVIII.8.1: ‘Sagitta a sagaci ictu, id est veloci ictu, vocata’.

10. IS, XVIII.8.2: ‘Spicula sunt sagittae vel lanceae breves, ab spicarum specie nuncupatae’.

11. IS, XVIII.8.3: ‘Scorpio est sagitta venenata arcu vel tormentis excussa’.

12. IS, XVIII.10.1: ‘Funda dicta eo quod ex ea fundantur lapides, id est emittantur. [2] Balista genus tormenti, ab emittendo iacula dicta … Torquetur enim verbere nervorum, et magni vi iacit aut hastas aut saxa. Inde et fundibalus, quasi fundens et emittens.’, cf. VR, I.16, p. 19: ‘fundis’.

13. IS, XVIII.11.1: ‘Arieti nomen species dedit, eo quod cum inpetu inpingit murum in modum arietum pugnantium. … [3] Plutei sunt crates corio crudo intextae, quae in opere faciendo hosti obiciuntur. [4] Musculus cuniculo similis fit, quo murus perfoditur …’, cf. VR, II.25, p. 61: ‘arietes … musculos’.

14. IS, XVIII.63: ‘iacula appellabantur, a iaciendo’, XIX.5.2: ‘Idem etiam a iactando iaculum dicitur’.

15. GRW, I.286, p. 114: ‘iaculis’, II.201, p. 142: ‘iaculis’, cf. YN, II.26, p. 90: ‘drechoient la haste contre le Grezois’.

16. DRGR, II.15, p. 33: ‘sagittariis’, 22, p. 36: ‘spiculo transfigunt’, 37, p. 47: ‘jaculo’, 40, p. 49: ‘spiculum … impingendo’ (x3), IV.2, p. 86: ‘jaculo’, 17, p. 96: ‘sagittis’, 25, p. 103: ‘jaculo’; Regino of Prüm, MGH SRGius, 50, ad an. 860, p. 79, cf. Ermold, MGH SS, 2, III.406, p. 497: ‘ferrum missile’.

17. VG, I.14, p. 18: ‘hastilia’, 17, pp. 19–20: ‘mattiobarbulos … telis’; DSQ, IV.112, p. 275: ‘decurtatis telis et lanceis’; GG, I.7, p. 8: ‘teloque’; GRW, II.138, p. 138: ‘pauci pedites’, III.45–6, p. 166: ‘Undique tela volant; circumtegit aera totum | Grando sagittarum’ (cf. IV.382–3, p. 225: ‘Undique telorum, nec maior visa refertur | Grando sagittarum’), 258, 260–1, p. 178: ‘Muniri pedites fundis facit atque sagittis [260–1] Accedunt muro pedites, et moenia saxis | Ac telis quatiunt.’.

18. GT, XXIII, p. 622; GF, III.9, p. 19, VII.18, p. 40: ‘iaculando, sagittando’; WC, II.5, p. 108: ‘telis, lanceis, sagittis, plumbatis ferratis et crebris gladiorum ictibus’; Smail, Crusading Warfare, p. 86.

19. GRW, II.224, p. 144; GF, IX.21, p. 49: ‘lanceas’; GG, I.12, p. 16: ‘lanceam proiicit’

20. Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.6, p. 149: ‘δόρατα κραδαῖνον μακρά’; WC, II.2, p. 102: ‘fracta lancea’; I. Peirce, ‘Arms, Armour and Warfare in the Eleventh Century’, ANS, 10, 1988, pp. 237–57, at 244; N. Sekunda, Macedonian Armies after Alexander 323–168 BC, Oxford, 2012, p. 16.

21. Paul the Deacon, MGH, Scriptores rerum Langobardicarum et Italicarum saec. VI-I X, V.10, p. 149: ‘… quendam Greculum codem contulo utrisque manibus fortiter percutiens, de sella super quam equitabat sustulit cumque in aera super caput suum levavit. Quod cernens Grecorum exercitus, mox immenso pavore perterritus in fugam convertitur’.

22. LD, I.8, p. 15: ‘δοράτων’, III.4, p. 41: ‘κοντῷ’, VIII.4, p. 133: ‘ἄκοντας’ (cf. Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.6–7, p. 149: ‘δόρατα’; Choniates, CSHB, Man., II.6, p. 121: ‘κοντοφορικὸν’); A Companion to the Roman Army, ed. P. Erdkamp, Sussex, 2011, pp. 261–2 (E. Wheeler), 273–4 (K. Strobel).

23. YN, III. 46, p. 163: ‘fionde et arc’; DRGR, II.37, p. 47: ‘fundibulis et sagittis’, 40, p. 49: ‘lapides funda versus hostes supra muros jacendo (sic. = jac[i]endo)’; HS, col. 763: ‘Cives … jactu lapidum, atque telorum creberrimo’; GRW, III.258, p. 178: ‘Muniri pedites fundis facit atque sagittis’; GT, VIII, p. 610: ‘funditores’; Kinnamos, CSHB, IV.5, p. 146: ‘πλήθους σφενδονητῶν ἀναρίθμου’.

24. VR, II.25, p. 60; DRGR, II.47, p. 47: ‘Ayellenses … extra castrum progredientes’.

25. GRW, II.499–502, p. 158: ‘Diversi generis tormento’ (502), cf. IV.250, p. 218: ‘petraria’ (at Dyrrachion, 1081); GG, I.40, p. 66: ‘tormento’; e.g. AK, IV.1, p. 120: ‘λιθοβόλα’, VI.1, p. 168: ‘πετροβόλα’; ET, 60, p. 74: ‘πετροβόλα’, 81, p. 98; DRGR, II.40, pp. 9: ‘arietes facere, caeteraque machinamenta, quae usui capiendae urbis necessaria erant’; M. Sage, Warfare in Ancient Greece: A Sourcebook, New York, 1996, pp. 157–9; P. Chevedden, ‘The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet: A Study in Cultural Diffusion’, DOP, 54, 2000, pp. 71–116, at 79, 81.

26. VR, II.25, p. 61: ‘musculos … uineas’; Liudprand, ‘Antapodosis’, MGH SRGius, 41, 1.27, p. 41: ‘clipeis … cratibusque’; GRW, II.497–9, p. 158: ‘Ad portarum aditus crates prudenter adorsus, | Sub quibus armatos obstantibus insidiantes | Ordinat …’; GT, XXXV, p. 631: ‘umbonum cratem’.

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