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The use of chemical or biological weapons in warfare has been around in its crudest forms for centuries. Early examples include hurling dead horses over castle walls to spread disease amongst the enemy, or pouring boiling oil over attackers from castle ramparts. These methods equate to the purpose of chemical warfare today, that is, not only to create causalities but also to disorganize, confuse and frighten the enemy, as well as rendering their equipment unusable through contamination.
By the twentieth century, many nations had investigated whether gases could be used on the battlefield to cause disruption to the enemy. World War I provided the ideal opportunity for this horrific weapon to be used in anger for the first time. Although the term ‘gas’ was originally used to describe chemicals in a gaseous form, by the end of World War I it encompassed most forms of chemical weapon. Many manuals after 1918 define gas in the military sense as any substance which (in war) is used to reduce the fighting efficiency of an enemy by its poisonous, irritant or blistering effect.
Gas was initially used on the battlefield with some success by the French during September 1914. These small-scale deployments involved the use of ‘tear gas’ grenades containing either xylyl bromide or ethyl bromoacetate; the latter is known to have been used by the French police force from 1912. It is widely accepted, however, that the first successful large-scale use of poison gas on the battlefield was on 22 April 1915 during the Second Battle of Ypres. At the time, the Allied lines were being held by divisions from the British, French and Canadian armies. The German Army had spent previous weeks in a huge effort to deploy some 6,000 or so pressurized gas cylinders containing deadly chlorine gas. At 5pm, the large-scale barrage ceased, at which point the French troops occupying the forward positions reported that they could clearly see in the distance a large ‘greenish’ cloud rising from the German lines and drifting across no-man’s-land. The order was quickly given for troops to ‘stand to’, as it was believed that the cloud was a smokescreen to cover for the German advance. The gas cloud hit the Allies with devastating effect, killing many occupying the forward positions. The number of casualties is hard to estimate, but it is believed that between 800–1,500 men were killed as a direct result of the gas and many thousands more sustained related injuries. Many Germans were also killed by the deadly cloud, as all of the gas cylinders had to be opened by hand. From this point onward, the Germans intended to use gas released by artillery shells as a safer method of deployment.
The German Army had proved that poison gas could indeed be used as an effective large-scale weapon of war. A hard lesson had been learnt by the Allies at the cost of many lives. Within just days of the attack, the British Army started to prepare its retaliation. The news of the gas attack at Ypres was used back home to the advantage of Government propaganda. Lord Kitchener, Secretary of State for War, gave instructions for research to be carried out immediately so that the British Army could start to develop its own gas-warfare capability. Major Charles Foulkes (later to become the main adviser for chemical warfare), was given the task of forming Special Gas Companies initially consisting of some 1,400–1,500 men taken from the Royal Engineers. Their first task was to prepare for a retaliatory gas attack to take place at Loos on 25 September 1915.
This diagram c.1915 shows a typical arrangement of how German poison-gas cylinders were deployed along the front line. Initially, cylinders were stored out in the open along the trench walls; however, this made them vulnerable to artillery fire. Later, dedicated storage pits like the one shown were dug, allowing gas cylinders to be amassed in safety prior to an attack.
The infamous Porton Down would become Britain’s main chemical-warfare research facility. It was created during 1915 to provide a dedicated research and testing facility to develop Britain’s own chemical-warfare capability. Its creation was sanctioned by Kitchener shortly after the attack at Ypres. Research, led by the Royal Engineers, commenced in 1916 at the facility, which was originally known as the Royal Engineers Experimental Station, Porton Down. As well as looking into the use of gas on the battlefield, Porton would become instrumental in the testing of nearly all the respirators and anti-gas equipment used for the next forty years.
Gas had become the deadly terror weapon of its day on the battlefield and most central European powers poured endless resources into developing it into a more controllable weapon. Likewise, a large amount of money would also be spent looking for ways to protect troops from its effects.
Types of War Gas
In order to understand how respirators have developed over the years, it is important to have a basic understanding of the different types of gases. For ease of explanation, these could fall into one of the following categories.
Lachrymators (Tear Gases)
The term ‘lachrymator’ is derived from the Latin word lacrima, meaning ‘tear’. Tear gas causes the eyes to swell and water, hence soldiers are temporarily blinded and unable to fight. Tear gas also causes the victim’s throat to become sore and inflamed, often causing coughing fits. The nose becomes inflamed and often runs uncontrollably; the throat becomes sore and in extreme cases the gas can even make teeth hurt. The two types already mentioned, xylyl bromide and ethyl bromoacetate, were very popular at the time, as they were easy to manufacture and could be stored with few problems.
Lachrymators are relatively easy to protect against by the use of a simple mask. In today’s British Army, new recruits are shown the effectiveness of their respirators by training in chambers filled with lachrymator gases.
Asphyxiant Gases
These war gases are highly toxic and cause victims to choke as the chemicals they contain attack the respiratory system. These gases became widely used from 1915 until the end of World War I. Chlorine, as used in the first attacks at Ypres and Loos by the Germans and British respectively, falls into this category, along with other infamous types such as phosgene and diphosgene. Chlorine attacks the alveoli in the lungs, which fill with fluid, meaning that victims effectively drown from the inside. Chlorine was used rarely after 1915 due to the fact that it could only be stored in heavy cylinders.
Phosgene, unlike the highly visible yellow/green coloured chlorine, is virtually colourless and has a much fainter smell, thus making it harder to detect. Phosgene prevents oxygen transfer into the bloodstream, meaning that the victim dies of suffocation. Diphosgene, a more formidable form of phosgene, was first used by the Germans and was employed on a large scale during the Battle of Verdun, on 22 June 1916.
Blistering/Vesicant Gases
This category includes the infamous dichlorethyl sulphide, better known as ‘Mustard Gas’ (describing both its colour and pungent smell). Such gases were mainly deployed by mortar or artillery shell. Vesicants are usually made up of alkylating agents, meaning that the vapour will stick to moist areas of the body and start to break down the tissue membranes, resulting in terrible burns and blisters. Many common injuries included severe burns to the hands, face and eyes.
What makes blistering agents worse is that, unlike other gases, they will sit on surfaces or linger in craters for hours or days after their release. It was not uncommon for troops taking shelter in shell holes days after an attack to fall victim to these terrible substances.
Nerve Gases/Agents
Just prior to the outbreak of World War II, another category of war gas was discovered accidentally in Nazi Germany. At the time, any discovery of possible military value had to be reported to the Ministry of War, so a new category was created, termed ‘nerve gas’. These gases, as the name suggests, primarily attack the nervous system. In very small doses, these agents can cause symptoms such as headaches and tightening of the chest. After extended exposure, victims will twitch uncontrollably, followed by severe convulsions. The body then fits uncontrollably, effectively exercising itself to death – a truly horrific weapon.
Detection is very hard and there are no visible signs, as nerve gases tend to be completely invisible and virtually odourless. They are hard to protect against and can even be absorbed through the eyes.