Notes

A full bibliography of the sources used in writing this book appears at the website of the Yale Law School Library. See http://documents.law.yale.edu/lincolns-code.

Prologue

1 Christmas Day: Matilda Lieber to FL, December 24, 1862, box 34, FLP HL; FL to Henry Halleck, December 16, 1862, box 27 FLP HL; FL to Matilda Lieber, December 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 26, and 27, 1862, all in box 36, FLP HL; Photograph of Francis Lieber, Columbia College Class of 1862 Album, Columbia University Archives, New York, NY.

1 At the request of: FL to Halleck, December 7, 1862, & December 9, 1862, box 27, FLP HL; FL to Benson J. Lossing, January 21, 1866, book 2, FLP LOC; Matthew J. Mancini, “Francis Lieber, Slavery, and the ‘Genesis’ of the Laws of War,” Journal of Southern History 77, no. 2 (May 2011): 325–48.

2 President Lincoln will issue: OR, 2: 5, 671.

2 will soon cross the Atlantic: G. I. A. D. Draper, “Implementation of International Law in Armed Conflicts,” International Affairs 48 (1972): 55; Peter Holquist, The Russian Empire as a “Civilized State”: International Law as Principle and Practice in Imperial Russia, 1874–1878, The National Council for Eurasian and East European Research, Washington, DC, 2006.

3 “hard hand of war”: WTS to Henry Halleck, December 24, 1864, in Brooks D. Simpson & Jean V. Berlin, eds., Sherman’s Civil War: Selected Correspondence of William T. Sherman, 1860–1865 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 776.

3 more aggressive, not less: Mark Grimsley, The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy Toward Southern Civilians, 1861–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

3 “simpering sentimentalist”: FL to Charles Sumner, n.d. [January 1865?], LI 3763, box 45, FLP HL.

3–4 His hero . . . Clausewitz: Lieber, Manual of Political Ethics, 2: 631.

4 urged blow after blow: FL to Charles Sumner, January 20, 1865, box 45, FLP HL (“strike, strike and strike again”).

4 “The more vigorously wars”: Instructions, art. 29.

4 civilian property: Ibid., art. 15 & 38.

4 forced return of civilians: Ibid., art. 18.

4 starving of noncombatants: Ibid., art. 17.

4 enemy guerrillas: Ibid., art. 82.

4 “To save the country”: Ibid., art. 5.

4 “unrelenting and vindictive”: James A. Seddon to Robert Ould, June 24, 1863, OR, 2: 6, 46.

4 “license for a man”: Robert Ould to Lt. Col. William Ludlow, June 5, 1863, OR, 2: 5, 744.

4 Davis condemned the code . . . military necessity: Davis’s annual message to the Confederate Congress, December 7, 1863, OR, 4: 2, 1047–48.

4 “securing the ends of the war”: Instructions, art. 14.

5 a long American tradition of respect: Good examples of this story in trade books include Jane Mayer, The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned into a War on American Ideals (New York: Doubleday, 2008); Philippe Sands, Torture Team: Rumsfeld’s Memo and the Betrayal of American Values (New York: Palgrave, 2008). Among historians, see Edwin Burrows, Forgotten Patriots: The Untold Story of American Prisoners During the Revolutionary War (New York: Basic Books, 2008); David Hackett Fischer, Washington’s Crossing (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004); and Louis Fisher, American Military Tribunals and Presidential Power: American Revolution to the War on Terrorism (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2005). For lawyers, see David Glazier, “Playing by the Rules: Combating Al Qaeda Within the Laws of War,” William & Mary Quarterly 51 (2009): 980–82; and Jordan J. Paust, “In Their Own Words: Affirmations of the Founders, Framers, and Early Judiciary Concerning the Binding Nature of the Customary Law of Nations,” University of California Davis Journal of International Law & Policy 14 (2008): 209. In journalism, see the editorial board of the New York Times: “Terrorism and the Law,” July 17, 2011. In the political arena, see Congressional Record, vol. 150, pp. 12128–29 (2004) (comments of Senator Durbin).

5 in historians’ briefs: Brief of Military Law Historians, Scholars, and Practitioners, Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, U.S. Supreme Court, No. 05–184 (2006).

5 Supreme Court’s cautious holdings: Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, 595–98 (2006).

5 international law has taken on: Preeminent here is Jack Goldsmith, The Terror Presidency: Law and Judgment Inside the Bush Administration (New York: W. W. Norton Co., 2007). See also Samuel Moyn, “From Antiwar Politics to Antitorture Politics,” Columbia University Working Paper, November 2011, available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1966231. A variation of this view insists that even if there were older forms of international law, they are now “quaint” and impose newly impossible constraints on American statesmen and soldiers. See George Bush, “Memorandum for the Vice President,” in Karen J. Greenberg & Joshua L. Dratel, eds., The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 134.

6 Making better sense of American history: For a provocative recent example of the kind of history that goes beyond the mythmaking, see William Ranney Levi, “Interrogation’s Law,” Yale Law Journal 118 (2009): 1434, 1462–83.

6 Carl Schmitt . . . thoroughly disingenuous: Carl Schmitt, The Nomos of the Earth in the International Law of Jus Publicum Europaeum (New York: Telos, 2006); Jan-Werner Muller, A Dangerous Mind (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 26.

6 to advance the authority of the world’s: See, e.g., Harold Pinter’s 2005 Nobel Prize acceptance speech, available at http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2005/pinter-lecture-e.html. See also Chris Jochnick & Roger Normand, “The Legitimation of Violence: Critical History of the Laws of War,” Harvard International Law Journal 35 (1994): 49.

6 Hawks in the United States and Israel: Douglas J. Feith, “Law in the Service of Terror—The Strange Case of the Additional Protocol,” The National Interest 1 (Fall 1985): 36–47.

7 Hypocrisy . . . the tribute vice: Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars (New York: Basic Books, 1977), xxi.

7 the conviction that their cause is right: I will take up this problem in more detail in chapter 1; see also James Turner Johnson, Ideology, Reason, and the Limitation of War: Religious and Secular Concepts, 1200–1740 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975).

8 almost half the defense spending: Phillip Bobbitt, Terror and Consent: The Wars for the Twenty-first Century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), 135; Stephen L. Carter, The Violence of Peace: America’s Wars in the Age of Obama (New York: Beast Books, 2011), ix.

Part I You Have Brought Me into Hell!

11 Epigraph: Benjamin Franklin to Joseph Priestley, PBF, 37: 445.

Chapter 1. The Rights of Humanity

13 The authorized maxims: Alexander Hamilton to Col. John Laurens, October 11, 1780, in PAH, 2: 460, 467–68.

13 went once again into the woods: For a longer account of the episode, see Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven Years War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000), 50–59.

13 In his official report: GW to Robert Dinwiddie, May 29, 1754, in PGW, Colonial Series, 1: 107, 110–11.

13 According to the French: GW to Robert Dinwiddie, May 29, 1754, in ibid., 1: 116–17; Editorial Note, in PGW, Diaries, 1: 162–73.

14 “You are not yet dead”: Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 240–41.

14 Fort Necessity: Account by George Washington and James Mackay of the Capitulation of Fort Necessity, July 19, 1754, PGW, Colonial Series, 1: 159ff.

14 an “assassination”: Articles of Capitulation, July 3, 1754, in ibid., 1: 165–68.

14 He would blame: GW to unknown, 1757, in ibid., 1: 168–72.

14 Washington’s diary . . . published: Mémoire Contenant le Précis des Faits avec Leurs Pieces Justificatives, Pour Servir de Réponse aux Observations Envoyés par les Ministres d’Angleterre, dans les Cours de l’Europe (Paris: L’Imprimerie Royale, 1756). The French version of the diary circulated widely enough that Jefferson owned a copy in his library—see Sowerby, Catalogue of the Library of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 2, pp. 67, 86 (LC, 1952).

14 “There is nothing more unworthy”: Duquesne to Contrecoeur, September 8, 1754, in PGW, Colonial Series, vol. 1, pp. 172–73.

14 his long and storied career: I have been influenced by Ron Chernow, Washington: A Life (New York: Penguin, 2010), and Joseph Ellis, His Excellency: George Washington (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004).

15 “plundered our Seas” . . . “an undistinguished Destruction”: Declaration of Independence, http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/declaration_transcript.html.

15 “You are to regulate”: JCC, 2: 96. In so instructing Washington, Congress undoubtedly intended for him to follow the Articles of War that it had just enacted. But those Articles picked up some features of the international laws of war. Moreover, if the Congress had wanted to limit the legal constraints on Washington to those Articles and exclude the international laws of war, it could easily have done so by limiting its instructions to the Articles.

15 denouncing General Thomas Gage: JCC, 2: 152 (July 6, 1775).

15 “the happiness of modern times” . . . “in arms and in the field”: JCC, 4: 22 (Jan. 2, 1776).

15–16 “execrable barbarity” . . . “Christianity may condemn”: JCC, 4: 21.

16 exhausted and depopulated: See, e.g., Peter H. Wilson, The Thirty Years War: Europe’s Tragedy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009); Geoffrey Parker, “Early Modern Europe,” in Michael Howard, George J. Andreopulos, and Mark R. Shulman, eds., The Laws of War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 53–55.

16 elaborate (if deadly) games: Michael Howard, War in European History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 56–73; John Keegan, A History of Warfare (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), 342–45; Armstrong Starkey, War in the Age of Enlightenment (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003).

16 analogized war to chess: Benjamin Franklin, Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue, ed. Alan Houston (1747; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004).

16 the metaphor of the gamble: Matthew Smith Anderson, War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime (Buffalo: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1988), 189; see also Geoffrey Best, Humanity in Warfare (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), 36.

16 fancied himself a poet: Coleman Phillipson, “Emerich De Vattel,” in Great Jurists of the World, ed. John & Edward Manson MacDonell (Boston: Little, Brown, 1914), 479.

16 most widely read: Francis Stephen Ruddy, International Law in the Enlightenment: The Background of Emmerich de Vattel’s Le Droit des Gens (New York: Oceana, 1975), 281–307.

16 “The humanity”: Emmerich de Vattel, Law of Nations, ed. Joseph Chitty (Philadelphia: T & J. W. Johnson & Co., 1883), bk 2, §140, at 348.

17 “with great moderation” . . . “extreme of politeness”: Ibid., bk 2, §158, at 363.

17 St. Augustine: Augustine, Concerning the City of God Against the Pagans, trans. Henry Bettenson (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books, 1972), bk 1, ch. 21, & bk 19, chs. 7 & 12 (Bettenson trans., 1972); see also James Turner Johnson, Ideology, Reason, and the Limitation of War: Religious and Secular Concepts, 1200–1740 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), 8–80; M. H. Keen, The Laws of War in the Late Middle Ages (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1965), 63–81; Stephen C. Neff,War and the Law of Nations: A General History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

17 “A prince may do everything”: Francisco Vitoria, Vitoria: Political Writings, ed. Anthony Pagden & Jeremy Lawrance (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 305.

17 Such armies could lawfully: Ibid., 317–18.

17 sack entire cities: Ibid., 322–23.

17 to execute prisoners: Ibid., 320–21.

17 the grave passages of Deuteronomy: See, esp., chap. 20, verses 12–20; also Vitoria, Vitoria: Political Writings, 316.

17–18 “the first rule . . . on both sides” and “If people wish . . . return of peace”: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk 2, §189, 382.

18 “quarter is to be given”: Ibid., bk 2, §140, 347–48.

18 “Women, children”: Ibid., bk 2, §145, 351.

18 “and other persons”: Ibid., 2, §146, 351.

18 “to fear from”: Ibid., bk 2, §147, 352.

18 “treacherous murder”: Ibid., bk 2, §155, 360.

18 Even firing on an enemy’s headquarters: Ibid., bk 2, §158–59, 362–64.

18 “to prefer the gentlest methods”: Ibid., bk 2, §178, 373.

18 chivalric codes: See Keen, Laws of War in the Late Middle Ages; Matthew Strickland, War and Chivalry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

18 Vitoria reasoned: Vitoria, Vitoria: Political Writings, 237.

18 Hugo Grotius had responded: Hugo Grotius, The Rights of War and Peace, ed. Richard Tuck (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 2005), bk 3, ch. 10, §1–3, 1411–13.

19 “civilized powers” . . . “horrors of war”: G. F. Von Martens, The Law of Nations: Being the Science of National Law . . . Founded Upon the Treaties and Customs of Modern Nations in Europe 1788 and 1829, trans. William Cobbett (London: William Cobbett, 1829, 4th ed.), ch. 3, §1, 284.

19 “an unjust enemy” . . . “a vast graveyard”: Immanuel Kant, Kant: Political Writings, ed. Hans Reiss (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 96.

19 the balance of power: Neff, War and the Law of Nations, 114.

19 changes in military technology: Keegan, History of Warfare, 342.

19 newly professionalizing armies: Howard, War in European History, 70–73.

19 victory in pitched battle: James Q. Whitman, The Verdict of Battle: The Law of Victory and the Making of Modern War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012).

19 “civility and decent behaviour”: Ellis, His Excellency: George Washington, 9.

19 “I have a Gallows near 40 feet high”: Ibid., 27.

20 rigid insistence on contract terms: Ibid., 46–47.

20 “from the noblest of all Principles” . . . “the rights of humanity”: GW to Lt. Gen. Thomas Gage, August 11, 1775, PGW, Rev. War Series, 1: 289–91.

20 sign a copy of rules: General Orders, August 9, 1775, ibid., 1: 278–79; GW to John Hancock, September 21, 1775, ibid., 2: 24.

20 “be abused”: Instructions to Col. Benedict Arnold, September 14, 1775, ibid., 1: 458–60.

20 He forbade pillage: Ibid., 7: 458 (Boston, March 13, 1776); 7: 126 (New York, Aug. 25, 1776).

20 “any person whatsoever” . . . “infamous mercenary ravagers”: General Orders, January 1, 1777, ibid., 7: 499.

21 not prisoners of war: Catherine M. Prelinger, “Benjamin Franklin and the American Prisoners of War,” William & Mary Quarterly (3d series) 32, no. 2 (April 1975): 263–67.

21 High-profile prisoners: David Duncan Wallace, The Life of Henry Laurens (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1915).

21 Ethan Allen: Ethan Allen, A Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen’s Captivity (Philadelphia: Robert Bell, 1779).

21 that 8,500 . . . died in captivity: John E. Ferling, Almost a Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 428. Edwin G. Burrows’s Forgotten Patriots: The Untold Story of American Prisoners During the Revolutionary War (New York: Basic Books, 2008) argues that the number of deaths was far higher than even this, but I am skeptical of his reasoning. See my review in the online magazine Slate, December 9, 2008,http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/history_lesson/2008/12/ye_olde_gitmo.single.html.

21 The grim prison ships: Burrows, Forgotten Patriots, 53–65; Larry G. Bowman, Captive Americans: Prisoners During the American Revolution (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1976), 40–42.

21 The smallpox epidemic: Elizabeth A. Fenn, Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775–82 (New York: Hill & Wang, 2001), pp. 120–21, 267; Bowman, Captive Americans, 42–49.

21 logistical shortcomings: Charles H. Metzger, The Prisoner in the American Revolution (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1971); Bowman, Captive Americans, 49; Richard H. Amerman, “Treatment of American Prisoners During the American Revolution,”Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society 78 (1960).

21 French prisoners were treated: Olive Anderson, “The Treatment of Prisoners of War in Britain During the American War for Independence,” Bulletin of the Institute for Historical Research 28 (1955), 72; Bowman, Captive Americans, 53–54; Prelinger, “Benjamin Franklin and the American Prisoners of War,” 268 n. 23.

21 the same medical attention: Bowman, Captive Americans, 20–21.

21 jails, old sugar warehouses: David L. Sterling, “American Prisoners of War in New York: A Report,” William & Mary Quarterly (3d series) 13 (1956), 380; Larry G. Bowman, “Military Parolees on Long Island, 1777–1782,” Journal of Long Island History18 (1982): 22.

21 British officers extended: Bowman, “Military Parolees on Long Island.”

21 privates were released on parole: Bowman, Captive Americans, 12.

21 prisoners were exchanged: Paul J. Springer, America’s Captives: Treatment of POWs from the Revolutionary War to the War on Terror (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010), 18–25.

22 “Painful as it may be”: GW to Lt. Gen. Thomas Gage, August 11, 1775, PGW, Rev. War Series, 1: 289–91.

22 “the unworthy Example”: GW to Maj. Christopher French, September 26, 1775, ibid., 2: 47–48.

22 “his Excellency would rather”: Stephen Moylan to William Watson, November 16, 1775, ibid., 2: 322–23.

22 refused to grant quarter . . . “rage and fury”: Harold E. Selesky, “Colonial America,” in Howard et al., eds., The Laws of War, 84.

22 convicted 194 soldiers for plundering: James C. Neagles, Summer Soldiers: A Survey and Index of Revolutionary War Courts-Martial (Salt Lake City: Ancestry Inc., 1996), 34.

22 “motives of . . . humanity”: Betsy Knight, “Prisoner Exchange and Parole in the American Revolution,” William & Mary Quarterly (3d series) 48 (1991): 209.

22 the Congress undermined: Larry G. Bowman, “The Pennsylvania Prisoner Exchange Conferences,” Pennsylvania History 45 (July 1978): 257–69.

23 “motives of policy”: GW to the President of Congress, July 10, 1780, WGW, 19: 147–48.

23 conspired to find trumped-up reasons: William M. Dabney, After Saratoga: The Story of the Convention Army (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1954), 16–25; Janet Beroth, “The Convention of Saratoga,” New York State Historical Association Quarterly Journal 8 (1927): 257.

23 He returned to British lines: Knight, “Prisoner Exchange and Parole,” 100–01.

23 He released vessels: Reginald Stuart, War and American Thought (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1982), 32.

23 ordered the humane treatment: Stephen Moylan to William Bartlett, December 10, 1775, PGW, Rev. War Series, 2: 521–22; GW to John Hancock, November 8, 1775, ibid., 2: 330–33; Instructions to Col. Benedict Arnold, September 14, 1775, ibid., 1: 458–60.

23 “I shall hold myself”: GW to Gov. William Livingston, May 6, 1782, WGW, 24: 226–27.

24 “Mercy! Mercy!”: Ferling, Almost a Miracle, ch. 14.

24 took 543 prisoners: Armstrong Starkey, “Paoli to Stony Point: Military Ethics and Weaponry During the American Revolution,” Journal of Military History 58 (1994), 22.

24 “generosity and clemency”: Ibid., 23.

24 “You have established”: Ibid., 20.

24 “a man of real merit”: Alexander Hamilton to John Laurens, October 11, 1780, PAH, 2: 467; see Sarah Knott, “Sensibility and the American War for Independence,” American Historical Review 109 (2004): 19–40.

24 “modesty and gentleness”: Richard D. Loewenberg, “A Letter on Major John André in Germany,” American Historical Review 49 (1944): 261.

25 truce flag plan: Robert Hatch, Major John André: A Gallant in Spy’s Clothing (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), 259–63; Winthrop Sargent, The Life and Career of Major John André, Adjutant-General of the British Army in America (New York: William Abbat, 1902), 400–10.

25 condemned the use of spies: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk 2, §179, 375.

25 executed a number of British spies: Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, 42 n. 14 (1942); John Marshall, The Life of George Washington (Philadelphia: C. P. Wayne, 1805), 4: 403; see also Roger Kaplan, “The Hidden War: British Intelligence Operations During the American Revolution,” William & Mary Quarterly (3d series) 47 (1990): 131 & n. 44; Louis Fisher, “Military Commissions: Problems of Authority and Practice,” Boston University International Law Journal 24 (2006): 19.

25 Board of General Officers: John Evangelist Walsh, The Execution of Major André (New York: Palgrave / St. Martin’s Press, 2001), 16–18; Detlev Vagts, “Military Commissions: A Concise History,” American Journal of International Law 101 (January 2007): 35, 37.

25 condemned him as a spy: Sargent, Life and Career, 400, 410.

25 appealed for mercy . . . men of sensibility: Knott, “Sensibility and the American War for Independence.”

25 “practice and usage of war”: WGW, 8: 473.

25 “Never . . . did any man suffer death”: Hamilton to Laurens, 9/1780, in Minutes of a Court of Inquiry, upon the Case of Major John André, with Accompanying Documents, Published in 1780 by Order of Congress (Albany, NY: J. Munsell, 1865), 55.

25 “more unfortunate than criminal”: WGW, 7: 241.

26 Mason Weems: Lewis Leary, The Book-Peddling Parson: An Account of the Life and Works of Mason Locke Weems, Patriot, Pitchman, Author and Purveyor of Morality to the Citizenry of the Early United States of America (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 1984).

26 “humanity, of zeal, interest and of honor”: See, e.g., General Orders, September 4, 1777 (Wilmington, DE), PGW, Rev. War Series, 11: 141–43. Two contemporary orderly books recorded the order as referring not merely to “interest but to real interest.”

27 “wanton Cruelty” . . . “all good men”: GW to Maj. Gen. Adam Stephen, April 20, 1777, PGW, Rev. War Series, 9: 223. Washington commended to Stephen the confluence of “Humanity & Policy.”

27 “open the eyes”: Fischer, Washington’s Crossing, 276.

27 “No fact can be clearer”: Paul H. Smith et al., eds., Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1774–1789 (Washington, DC: Library of Congress), 9: 244.

27 “the authorized maxims”: Alexander Hamilton to Col. John Laurens, October 11, 1780, in PAH, 2: 460, 467–68.

27 “little favourable to” . . . “usages of nations”: PGW, Presidential Series, 6: 441 (1790).

28 alleged British atrocities: Jefferson’s preamble for the June 1776 Virginia Constitution is worth quoting at length. He accused the king of imposing tyranny

by plundering our seas, ravaging our coasts, burning our towns and destroying the lives of our people;

by inciting insurrections of our fellow subjects with the allurements of forfeiture & confiscation;

by prompting our negroes to rise in arms among us; those very negroes whom, by an inhuman use of his negative, he hath refused permission to exclude by law;

by endeavoring to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, & conditions of existence;

by transporting at this time a large army of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation & tyranny already begun with circumstances of cruelty & perfidy so unworthy the head of a civilized nation. . . .

See Draft Constitution for Virginia 1776, at http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/jeffcons.asp.

28 quoted Grotius: E.g., TJ to George Hammond, May 29, 1792, PTJ, 23: 541.

28 references to the Swiss-born diplomat Vattel: E.g., TJ to James Madison, April 28, 1793, ibid., 25: 691.

28 between noon and 2 p.m.: TJ to John Garland Jefferson, June 11, 1790, ibid., 16: 481.

28 van Bynkershoek . . . Burlamaqui: Sowerby, Catalogue of the Library of Thomas Jefferson, 2: 67ff.; J. J. Burlamaqui, The Principles of Natural and Politic Law, trans. Thomas Nugent (Philadelphia: H. C. Carey & I. Lea, 1823), 2: 191.

28 “opened his doors to them”: Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 164.

28 “great cause” . . . “individual animosities”: Ibid., 165.

29 “to mitigate the horrors” . . . “foes and neutrals”: TJ to Patrick Henry, March 27, 1779, PTJ, 2: 237, 242.

29 “other ordinary vocations” . . . “did not exist”: TJ to Thomas Pinkney, September 7, 1793, ibid., 27: 55, 56.

29 Dunmore . . . threatened to free the slaves: Maya Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011), 48–49; Sylvia R. Frey, Water from the Rock (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 55; Simon Schama, Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American Revolution (New York: Ecco, 2006), 67.

29 “All indentured Servants”: [Proclamation, Nov. 7, 1775], By His Excellency the Right Honourable John Earl of Dunmore, Evans Early American Imprint no. 14592.

29 expanded Dunmore’s proclamation: Frey, Water from the Rock, 113; Schama, Rough Crossings, 100.

29 some 20,000 slaves . . . twenty-three of Jefferson’s two hundred: Cassandra Pybus, “Jefferson’s Faulty Math: The Question of Slave Defections in the American Revolution,” William & Mary Quarterly (3d series) 62, no. 2 (2005): 243, 246. Pybus’s article is an important revision downward of earlier estimates that were closer to 100,000. See, e.g., Schama, Rough Crossings, 8.

29 partisan war against their former masters: Schama, Rough Crossings, 125.

30 A passage in Vattel’s: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk 2, §209, 394.

30 Grotius observed that: Grotius, Rights of War and Peace, bk 3, ch. 15, 1510.

30 “nothing else but the state of war continued”: Quoted in David Brion Davis, Introduction to Arming Slaves: From Classical Times to the Modern Age, ed. Christopher Leslie & Philip D. Morgan Brown (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 3.

30 “domestic enemies”: JCC, 2: 153 (July 6, 1775).

30 Grotius had done nothing: Martine Julia van Ittersum, Profit and Principle: Hugo Grotius, Natural Rights Theories and the Rise of Dutch Power in the East Indies (Boston: Brill, 2006).

30 slavery had been justified: Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Law, trans. Anne M. Cohler, Basia Carolyn Miller, & Harold Samuel Stone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 247.

30 “right of making slaves”: William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (1768; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 1: 411.

31 from execution to enslavement: David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1966), 425.

31 “He has waged cruel war” . . . “execrable commerce”: PTJ, 1: 426.

31 These lines were soon cut: Pauline Maier, American Scripture (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), 146.

31 “to give them freedom”: PTJ, 13: 363–64 (emphasis mine).

32 “The known rule of warfare”: TJ to William Phillips, July 22, 1779, ibid., 3: 46.

32 “to force them to respect”: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk 2, §141, 348.

32 “coolly and deliberately”: Ibid., bk 2, §151, 355.

32 “themselves the scourges and horror”: Ibid., bk 1, §56, 156–57.

32 The “end proposed”: TJ to George Rogers Clark, January 1, 1779 [1780 new style], PTJ, 3: 259.

33 a cultured aristocrat: John D. Barnhart, Henry Hamilton and George Rogers Clark in the American Revolution with the Unpublished Journal of Lieut. Gov. Henry Hamilton (Crawfordsville, IN: R. E. Banta, 1951), 11.

33 “well shaped”: Ibid., 12.

33 Portrait sketches: Henry Hamilton Drawings of North American Scenes and Native Americans (MS Eng 509.2), Houghton Library, Harvard University. Amazingly, one can now pull up the sketches online from the Houghton Library at Harvard. Seehttp://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~hou00125.

33 from as early as 1774: Barnhart, Henry Hamilton and George Rogers Clark, 24.

33 “take up the hatchet”: Ibid., 25–29.

33 an “uncommon humanity”: Ibid., 30.

33 “an alarm upon the frontiers”: Ibid., 29.

33 “The Hair-Buyer”: Bernard W. Sheehan, “The Famous Hair Buyer General: Henry Hamilton, George Rogers Clark, and the American Indian,” Indiana Magazine of History 79 (1983): 1–28.

34 “expected shortly to see”: Barnhart, Henry Hamilton and George Rogers Clark, 189.

34 “made a vow”: Milo M. Quaife, The Capture of Old Vincennes (New York: Columbia University Press, 1927), 200.

34 a daring and brilliantly executed: James Alton James, The Life of George Rogers Clark (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1928), 137–38.

34 “I told him”: James Alton James, ed., “George Rogers Clark Papers, 1771–1781,” Illinois Historical Library Collections 8 (1912): 144.

34 “to perpetrate” . . . “rewards for scalps”: PTJ, 2: 293–94.

34–35 “conduct of British officers” . . . “publick jail”: Ibid.

35 “fit subjects to begin”: Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation, 180.

35 badly exaggerated: See, e.g., the view of the editors of The Papers of George Washington, PGW, Rev. War Series, 4: 390 n. 4, whose view is shared by virtually every historian since Barnhart published Hamilton’s journals in 1952.

35 killed a dozen Cherokee: TJ to GW, June 19, 1779, PTJ, 3: 6.

35 “ravages and enormities” . . . next breath: TJ to John Jay, June 19, 1779, ibid., 3: 5.

35 “ripping up her Belly”: Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 388.

36 “A young chief”: Ibid., 377.

36 encouraged the use of Indian warriors: Colin G. Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 46.

36 “strike no small terror”: James H. O’Donnell III, Southern Indians in the American Revolution (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1973), 71.

36 “to any overture of peace” . . . “inspire them”: GW to Maj. Gen. John Sullivan, May 31, 1779, PGW, Rev. War Series, 20: 718.

36 scalp-buying: James Axtell & William C. Sturtevant, “The Unkindest Cut, or Who Invented Scalping,” William & Mary Quarterly (3d series) 37, no. 3 (1980): 451, 470.

36 Pennsylvania . . . South Carolina . . . Indian graves: Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, 49.

36 “lend my hand to”: Joseph Ellis, American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996), 40.

36 “hallowed ark”: Robert W. Tucker & David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 7.

36 “Interested men”: William Phillips to TJ, July 5, 1779, PTJ, 3: 25.

37 British prison guards retaliated: TJ to GW, October 2, 1779, ibid., 3: 99.

37 “to pervert this”: TJ to George Matthews, October 8, 1779, ibid., 3: 102; see also 3: 44–46, 86–87, 245–46.

37 “hard necessity”: TJ to GW, October 8, 1779, ibid., 3: 104.

37 “On more mature consideration”: GW to TJ, August 6, 1779, ibid., 3: 61.

37 “competition in cruelty”: GW to TJ, November 23, 1779, ibid., 3: 198.

37 removed Hamilton’s iron fetters: TJ to GW, October 1, 1779, ibid., 3: 96; TJ to William Phillips, October 2, 1779, 3: 97–98.

37 upstairs room . . . near Richmond: Qaife, Capture of Old Vincennes, 214–15.

37 paroled to British lines: PTJ, 3: 24, 46–47.

37 was exchanged . . . passage back: Qaife, Capture of Old Vincennes, 219.

37 “The bleeding Continent”: Cyrus Griffin to TJ, July 13, 1779, PTJ, 3: 34.

38 “with as much relentless Fury”: John S. Pancake, This Destructive War: The British Campaign in the Carolinas, 1780–1782 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1985), 73.

38 rumored to deny quarter: Russell F. Weigley, The Partisan War: The South Carolina Campaign of 1780–1782 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1970), 7.

38 Benedict Arnold: Pancake, This Destructive War, 146–48.

38 just missed capturing Jefferson: John Richard Alden, The South in the Revolution, 1763–1789 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1957), 294.

38 smallpox-infected slaves: Schama, Rough Crossings, 117.

38 Isaac Hayne: Bowman, Captive Americans, 101–03.

38 “upwards of one thousand houses”: O’Donnell, Southern Indians, 107.

38 executed and scalped: John Grenier, The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 161.

38 mission town of Gnadenhutten: Peter Silver, Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2008), 265–74; Grenier, First Way of War, 161 & 161 n. 50.

38 “uncommon degree of restraint”: Charles Royster, Light-Horse Harry Lee and the Legacy of the American Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981), 19.

39 to give no quarter . . . burning the soles: Ibid., 36–37.

39 “extraordinary acts of brutality”: Don Higginbotham, The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789 (New York: Macmillan, 1971), 362.

39 “hunted them down”: Ibid., 362.

39 “the milk of human kindness”: Metzger, Prisoner in the American Revolution, 185; see also pp. 161–62, 184.

39 Simsbury copper mines: Ibid., 185.

39 widespread retaliation: JCC, 21: 1017–18.

40 “barbarity with which” . . . “humanity could suffer”: Irving Brant, James Madison the Nationalist, 1780–1787 (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1948), 159.

40 “defenceless towns”: JCC, 21: 977.

40 “strictly charge” . . . “to ashes”: Ibid., 21: 977–78.

40 “to that God who searches” . . . “consigned to the flames”: Ibid., 21: 1017–18.

40–41 “objects of our vengeance” . . . “put to instant death”: Ibid., 21: 1029–30.

41 “the cause of heaven against hell”: Nathan O. Hatch, The Sacred Cause of Liberty: Republican Thought and the Millennium in Revolutionary New England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977), 61.

41 “the hand of God”: Benjamin Trumbull, Sermon, December 14, 1775, Benjamin Trumbull Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University.

41 “If this war be just”: Reginald Stuart, War and American Thought: From the Revolution to the Monroe Doctrine (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1982), 23.

41 “obedience to God” . . . “a cause of greater worth”: Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 98 (quoting Franklin and Jefferson’s 1782 motto for the republic and Thomas Paine, respectively).

42 revolutionary millennialism broke out: Ruth Bloch, Visionary Republic: Millennial Themes in American Thought, 1756–1800 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 60.

42 The violence of 1745: Bruce Lenman, The Jacobite Risings in Britain 1689–1746 (London: Eyre Methuen, 1980), 231–59.

42 most midlevel British officers: Stephen Conway, “British Army Officers and the Conduct of the Revolutionary War,” William & Mary Quarterly (3rd series) 43 (1986): 400–07.

43 “Oh God!”: Higginbotham, War of American Independence, 383.

43 “according to the custom and usage of war”: 22 Geo 3, c. 10, p. 155 (March 25, 1782).

43 “there hardly ever existed”: Gerald Stourzh, Benjamin Franklin and American Foreign Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 186.

43–44 “very badly constructed” . . . “ashamed of a virtuous Action”: BF to Joseph Priestley, June 7, 1782, PBF, 37: 444.

44 passed the book around: Francis Wharton, ed., The Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1889), 2: 64.

44 “for the interest of humanity”: Franklin’s Thoughts on Privateering and the Sugar Islands: Two Essays, PBF, 37: 618.

44 “Motives of general humanity”: BF to David Hartley, May 4, 1779, PBF, 29: 425.

44 “since the foolish part of mankind”: Stourzh, Benjamin Franklin and American Foreign Policy, 186.

44 the “plan of treaties”: Samuel Flagg Bemis, The Diplomacy of the American Revolution (New York: American Historical Association, 1935), 45.

44 “the Ben Franklin program”: Best, Humanity in Warfare, 98.

44 model treaty: JCC, 5: 768–79.

45 Peace of Utrecht: Bemis, Diplomacy of the American Revolution, 46.

45 adopted almost word for word: Ibid., 61.

45 “common benefit of mankind”: BF to Robert Morris, June 3, 1780, PBF, 32: 466–67.

45 “farmers, fishermen & merchants”: BF to D. Wendorp & Thomas Hope Heylinger, June 8, 1781, ibid., 35: 134–35.

45 “It is hardly necessary”: BF to Benjamin Vaughan, July 10, 1782, ibid., 37: 608, 610.

46 “a few rich ships” . . . “even the undertakers”: Franklin’s Thoughts on Privateering and the Sugar Islands, ibid., 37: 619.

46 most respected Enlightenment sovereign . . . “age of Frederick”: Christopher Clark, Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia (Cambridge, MA: Belknap University Press, 2006), 252–53.

46 a connection with Frederick: Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation, 306.

46 “all women and children”: Malloy, 2: 1477, 1484.

46 apparently inspired by Jefferson: PTJ, 7: 476–78; see Burrus M. Carnahan, “Reason, Retaliation, and Rhetoric: Jefferson and the Quest for Humanity in War,” Military Law Review 139 (1993): 83, 123–26.

46 “a good Lesson to Mankind”: PTJ, 7: 465.

47 The Netherlands and Sweden: Malloy, 2: 1233, 1725.

47 Morocco: Ibid., 1: 1206.

47 Great Britain: Ibid., 1: 590, 605 (privilege of merchants).

47 Spain: Ibid., 2: 1640.

47 Prussia: Ibid., 2: 1486.

47 France: Ibid., 1: 496.

47 Algiers: Ibid., 1: 6.

47 Central and South America: Ibid., 1: 1117 (Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Mexico 1848, art. 22). For treaties influenced by the Franklin program in Central and South America, see ibid., 1: 164–68 (Central America 1825); 1: 174–78 (Chile 1832); 1: 1379–83 (Peru–Bolivia 1836); 2: 1836–39 (Venezuela 1836); 1: 425–29 (Ecuador 1839); 1: 865–68 (Guatemala 1849); 2: 1541–45 (Salvador 1850); 1: 345 (Costa Rica 1851); 2: 1395–98 (Peru 1851); 1: 18 (Argentina 1853); 2: 1402 (Peru 1856); 1: 119–22 (Bolivia 1858); 2: 1368 (Paraguay 1859); 2: 1849–53 (Venezuela 1860); 1: 956 (Honduras 1864); 1: 925–29 (Haiti 1864); 1: 408–11 (Dominican Republic 1867); 2: 1283–84 (Nicaragua 1867).

47 Russia and Italy: Ibid., 2: 1519; 1: 969.

47 China: Ibid., 1: 196.

48 “happy in the confirmation of”: Resignation Address, December 23, 1783, George Washington’s Papers at the Library of Congress, http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw3&fileName=mgw3a/gwpage007.db&recNum=161.

Chapter 2. The Rules of Civilized Warfare

49 “Our object was the restoration”: Charles Francis Adams, ed., Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1969), 3: 257.

49 “It is among the evils of slavery”: Ibid., 1: 232.

49 On the night of August 24, 1814: J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 414–24; James Pack, The Man Who Burned the White House: Admiral Sir George Cockburn, 1772–1853 (Emsworth, PA: Mason, 1987), 191–92.

49 a battle-tested veteran: Captain James Scott, R.N., Recollections of a Naval Life (London: Richard Bentley, 1834), 3: 298–99.

49 Corps of Colonial Marines: Christopher T. George, “Mirage of Freedom: African Americans in the War of 1812,” Maryland Historical Magazine 91, no. 4 (1996): 427, 434–39.

50 only after General Ross received no response: Pack, The Man Who Burned the White House, 191–92.

50 shot the horse out: Scott, Recollections of a Naval Life, 3: 298.

50 burned entire towns along the Canadian border: Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels & Indian Allies (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010), 215–17, 244–52; Jon Latimer, 1812: War with America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 223–24.

50 “when necessity or the maxims of war”: Emmerich de Vattel, The Law of Nations, trans. Joseph Chitty (Philadelphia: T. & J. W. Johnson & Co., 1867), bk. 3, §168, p. 368.

50 Napoleon had destroyed the Kremlin: See Worthington Chauncey Ford, ed., The Writings of John Quincy Adams (New York: Macmillan, 1915), 5: 153–54.

50 “wantonly destroyed”: James D. Richardson, ed., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents 1789–1897 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1896), 1: 545.

51 “most widely read geographical book”: Ralph H. Brown, “The American Geographies of Jedediah Morse,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 31, no. 3 (1941), 145, 148.

51–52 “remarkable events” . . . “strict neutrality”: Jedediah Morse, The American Universal Geography, or, a View of the Present State of All the Empires, Kingdoms, States, and Republics in the Known World, and of the United States of America in Particular(Boston: Young & Etheridge, 1793), 2: 533, 548.

52 “will regard his own country as a wife”: PAH, 14: 267.

52 neutrality as morally suspicious: Stephen C. Neff, The Rights and Duties of Neutrals: A General History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Stephen C. Neff, War and the Law of Nations: A General History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Nicolas Politis, Neutrality and Peace, trans. Francis Crane Macken (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1935), 13–15; G. I. A. D. Draper, “Grotius’s Place in the Development of Legal Ideas about War,” in Hedley Bull et al., eds., Hugo Grotius and International Relations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 177, 196.

52 “the sorrowful state of souls unsure”: The Inferno of Dante: A New Verse Translation, trans. Robert Pinsky (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1994), 24–27, canto III, lines 30–53.

53 “not to be countenanced”: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk 3, §106, pp. 332–33.

53 “The enemy of my friend”: Cornelius van Bynkershoek, On Questions of Public Law, trans. Tenney Frank (1737; repr., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930), 2: 60.

53 corrupt “jurisprudists”: Harry Ammon, The Genet Mission (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1973), 76.

53 Washington asked Chief Justice John Jay: Stewart Jay, Most Humble Servants: The Advisory Role of Early Judges (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), 113–48.

53 issued through Jefferson a series of statements: PTJ, 27: 328–73.

54 Congress cemented: An Act in Addition to the Act for the Punishment of Certain Crimes Against the United States, Stat., 1: 381–84. Even before the enactment of the neutrality legislation, the district attorney in Philadelphia indicted U.S. citizen Gideon Henfield for participating in a French privateering expedition aboard the Citoyen Genet in the summer of 1793. Associate Justice James Wilson charged the jury that Henfield’s acts were a violation of “the law of nations” because he “committed an act of hostility against the subjects of a power with whom the United States are at peace.” The jury acquitted Henfield, Wilson’s charge notwithstanding.

54 “the horrors of war in perfection”: Jean Edward Smith, John Marshall: Definer of a Nation (New York: Henry Holt, 1996), 49.

54 “Its destruction”: Ibid., 51.

54 “strangely woven”: Albert J. Beveridge, The Life of John Marshall (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1919), 4: 1.

54 never mustered out: Smith, John Marshall, 69.

54 a crucial diplomatic mission: William Stinchcombe, The XYZ Affair (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980); Benjamin Munn Ziegler, The International Law of John Marshall: A Study of First Principles (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1939), 246–47.

55 “uncommonly mild”: Smith, John Marshall, 421–22.

55 “unaffected modesty”: Ibid., 291.

55 “more use of his brains”: Edward S. Corwin, John Marshall and the Constitution: A Chronicle of the Supreme Court (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1919), 42.

55 “The new world”: George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 69.

55 British cruisers seized: Jerald A. Combs, The Jay Treaty: Political Battleground of the Founding Fathers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970), 120; “Mission to France: Editorial Note,” in Herbert A. Johnson et al., eds., The Papers of John Marshall (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1974), 3: 74.

55 the French seized 316 American ships: Alexander de Condé, The Quasi-War: The Politics and Diplomacy of the Undeclared War with France, 1797–1801 (New York: Scribner, 1966), 9.

55 Desperate for manpower: Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 103–34.

55 French commanders tortured: de Condé, Quasi-War, 9.

56 Talbot v. Seeman: 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 1 (1801).

56 far less apparent when Marshall took the bench: Harold Hongju Koh, “Transnational Public Law Litigation,” Yale Law Journal 100 (1991): 2347, 2356; David Sloss, “Judicial Foreign Policy: Lessons from the 1790s,” St. Louis University Law Journal 53 (2008): 162–64.

57 to recapture any vessel such as the Amelia: An Act More Effectually to Protect the Commerce and Coasts of the United States, Stat., 1: 561 (May 28, 1798).

57 authorized the collection of salvage fees: An Act to Authorize the Defense of the Merchant-Vessels of the United States Against French Depredations, Stat., 1: 572 (June 25, 1798).

57 “By this construction”: Talbot, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) at 28.

57 Marshall did his utmost: R. Kent Newmeyer, John Marshall and the Heroic Age of the Supreme Court (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001), 286.

57 “to be construed to violate”: Murray v. The Charming Betsy, 6 U.S. (2 Cranch) 64, 118 (1804).

58 The mere intention to go to a blockaded port: Fitzsimmons v. Newport Ins. Co., 8 U.S. 185 (1808).

58 merely by inquiring: Maryland Ins. Co. v. Woods, 10 U.S. 29 (1810).

58 to undo the capture of a neutral: Little v. Barreme, 6 U.S. (2 Cranch) 170 (1804).

58 plausible but contested neutral status: The Charming Betsy, 6 U.S. at 119–21; Maley v. Shattuck, 7 U.S. 458 (1806); Sands v. Knox, 7 U.S. 499 (1806).

58 in an armed enemy convoy: The Nereide, 13 U.S. (9 Cranch) 388, 419–23 (1815).

58 “enlarges the sphere”: The Nereide, 13 U.S. at 419.

58 the Commercen: 14 U.S. (1 Wheat.) 382 (1816).

58 The Schooner Exchange: 7 U.S. 116, 126 (1812).

58 routinely upheld the condemnation: E.g., The Hazard, 13 U.S. 126 (1815); The Fortuna, 16 U.S. 236 (1818); The Atalanta, 18 U.S. 433 (1820).

59 In case after case: E.g., The Gran Para, 20 U.S. 471 (1822); The Fanny, 22 U.S. 658 (1824); The Marianna Flora, 24 U.S. 1 (1825).

59 “The affairs of Europe”: Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 80.

59 an identity as well as an interest: David M. Golove & Daniel J. Hulsebosch, “A Civilized Nation: The Early American Constitution, the Law of Nations, and the Pursuit of International Recognition,” New York University Law Review 85 (2010): 932; Daniel J. Hulsebosch, “Being Seen Like a State: The Constitution and Its International Audiences at the Founding,” New York University School of Law, September 2011.

59 neutral vessels were free to carry: See, e.g., BF to Robert Morris, June 3, 1780, PBF, 32: 466–67; Samuel Flagg Bemis, The Diplomacy of the American Revolution (New York: American Historical Association, 1935), 131–34.

59 two potentially gaping exceptions: On the laws of war at sea, see Carlton Savage, Policy of the United States Toward Maritime Commerce, 1776–1914, 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1934–36); Bryan Ranft, “Restraints on War at Sea Before 1945,” in Michael Howard, ed., Restraints on War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), 39–56.

60 Such goods were “contraband”: Philip C. Jessup, American Neutrality and International Police (Boston: World Peace Foundation Pamphlets, 1928), 111–12.

60 Later the British declared: Eli F. Hecksher, The Continental System: An Economic Interpretation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1922).

60 food could not possibly be: Thomas Pinckney to Thomas Jefferson, February 5, 1793, in PTJ, 25: 150; also Thomas Pinckney to Thomas Jefferson, February 5, 1793, and February 10, 1793, in PTJ, 25: 166.

60 “actually besieged”: James Madison, An Examination of the British Doctrine, Which Subjects to Capture a Neutral Trade, Not Open in Time of Peace (Washington City: Samuel H. Smith, 1806), 6.

60 “so manifestly contrary to the law”: Mr. Jefferson, Secretary of State, to Mr. Hammond, Minister Plenipotentiary of Great Britain, in ASP: Foreign Affairs, 1: 190.

60 “a mass of contradictory decisions”: Henry Wheaton, A Digest of the Law of Maritime Captures and Prizes (New York: R. M’Dermut & D. D. Arden, 1815), v.

60 “almost biblical elasticity”: Samuel Flagg Bemis, Jay’s Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1962), 185.

60 so-called Rule of 1756: Stephen C. Neff, The Rights and Duties of Neutrals: A General History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 66.

61 “more unjust in itself”: Madison, Examination of the British Doctrine, 204.

61 Madison was forced to distinguish: Ibid., 19–23.

61 determined in the Essex case: Bradford Perkins, “Sir William Scott and the Essex,” William & Mary Quarterly (3d series) 13, no. 2 (April 1966): 169, 179–80; Douglas J. Sylvester, “International Law as Sword or Shield? Early American Foreign Policy and the Law of Nations,” NYU Journal of International Law & Policy 32 (1999): 52–53.

61 reacted angrily to the Essex decision: “The Case of the Essex,” Salem Register, September 16, 1805; see also “An Interesting Case,” Alexandria Advertiser, September 18, 1805; “Law Case,” Aurora General Advertiser, October 21, 1805.

61 “system of vexation and injury”: Bradford Perkins, Prologue to War: England and the United States, 1805–1812 (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961), 79.

62 shed little light on: Cf. Madison, Examination of the British Doctrine (1806), and Tench Coxe [Juriscola], An Examination of the Conduct of Great Britain, Respecting Neutrals, Since the Year 1791 (Boston: Oliver & Munroe, 1808), and William John Duane,The Law of Nations, Investigated in a Popular Manner. Addressed to the Farmers of the United States (Philadelphia: The Aurora, 1809), with James Stephen, War in Disguise; or, the Frauds of the Neutral Flags (New York: Hopkins & Seymour, 1806), and An Examination of the British Doctrine Which Subjects to Capture a Neutral Trade Not Open in Time of Peace (London: S. Gould, 2nd ed. 1806), and Alexander Croke, Remarks on Mr. Schlegel’s Work Upon the Visitation of Neutral Vessels Under Convoy(London: J. White, 1801).

62 the frigate USS Chesapeake: Spencer C. Tucker & Frank T. Reuter, Injured Honor: The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, June 22, 1807 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1996); Robert E. Cray, “Remembering the USS Chesapeake: The Politics of Maritime Death and Impressment,” Journal of the Early Republic 25, no. 3 (2005): 445–74; Anthony Steel, “More Light on the Chesapeake,” Mariner’s Mirror 39, no. 4 (1953), 243–65.

63 had not violated international law at all: Tucker & Reuter, Injured Honor, 114.

63 stripped itself of its neutrality: Perkins, Prologue to War, 193.

63 “inveigle away your troops”: Henry Adams, History of the United States of America During the Second Administration of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Charles Scribner & Co., 1890), 2: 44.

63 “no impartial person”: Cray, “Remembering the USS Chesapeake,” 465.

63 “on no other grounds”: Canning to Monroe, August 3, 1807, in ASP: Foreign Affairs, 3: 188.

63 “not because the lawyers”: Adams, Second Administration of Thomas Jefferson, 2: 78.

64 Napoleon retaliated: Neff, Rights and Duties of Neutrals, 76–85.

64 “merely original and abstract”: Ibid., 82.

64 were not contingent: Perkins, Prologue to War, 257.

65 “reason to believe”: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk. 2, §334, p. 280.

65 “plausibly argued”: Reid quoted in Daniel J. Hulsebosch, Constituting Empire: New York and the Transformation of Constitutionalism in the Atlantic World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 32; see also James Parton, The Life and Times of Aaron Burr (New York: Mason Bros., 1858), 149 (“Law is whatever is boldly asserted and plausibly maintained’”).

65 “greatest curse of all”: Perkins, Prologue to War, 73.

65 “sacred rights”: Cray, “Remembering the USS Chesapeake,” 466.

65 “a flagrant violation”: Ibid., 460.

65 “Our rights are absolute”: Perkins, Prologue to War, 257.

65 “We must strive for our rights”: Ibid., 298.

66 “daring insult”: Cray, “Remembering the USS Chesapeake,” 460.

66 Crowds marched in the streets: Robert E. Cray, Jr., “Commemorating the Prison Ship Dead: Revolutionary Memory and the Politics of Sepulture in the Early Republic, 1776–1808,” William & Mary Quarterly (3d series) 56, no. 3 (1999): 565–90.

66 at the Raisin River: Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 86; Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 212–13.

67 Along the Canadian border: Latimer, 1812: War with America, 225–26.

67 retaliatory imprisonment: Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 358–62.

67 A congressional committee: “Spirit and Manner in Which the War Is Waged by the Enemy,” ASP: Military Affairs, 1: 339.

67 torched the Canadian Parliament: Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 215–17.

67 burned more than 100 dwellings: Ibid., 250–52.

67 leave poisons in bottles: Latimer, 1812: War with America, 305.

67 “No wars are so cruel”: Ford, Writings of John Quincy Adams, 5: 154.

67 “the safe keeping”: An Act for the Safe Keeping and Accommodation of Prisoners of War, Stat., 2: 777 (1812).

67 British merchants in American ports: Stat. 2: 780, §§5–6; Anthony G. Dietz, The Prisoner of War in the United States During the War of 1812, Ph.D. diss., American University, 1964, 68.

67 recognized flags of truce: Ibid., 95.

67 recognized the other’s agents: Ibid., 24, 39.

68 released captured prisoners on parole: Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 361–62.

68 the exchange of all prisoners: Miller, 2: 568–73.

68 struck a more permanent deal: Ibid., 2: 557–67; Latimer, 1812: War with America, 190–91.

68 “with humanity conformable”: Miller, 2: 557.

68 exchanged more than 1,000 soldiers: Dietz, Prisoner of War, 79.

68 “downtown Mrs. Smith”: Ibid., 112.

68 “sat down to tables”: Ibid., 113.

68 received medical care: Ibid., 101–02.

68 The main complaint: Ibid., 185–87.

69 to escape too easily: Ibid., 107–12.

69 a cycle of retaliation: Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 358–62.

69 Francis Scott Key came to know: Walter Lord, The Dawn’s Early Light (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1972), 243.

70 “We have a right”: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk. 3, §161, p. 364.

70 “booty”: Ibid., bk. 3, §164, p. 365.

70 “Every man in a just war”: J. J. Burlamaqui, The Principles of Natural and Politic Law, trans. Thomas Nugent (Philadelphia: H. C. Carey & I. Lea, 1823), 2: 203.

70 “The conqueror has a right”: Georg Friedrich von Martens, Summary of the Law of Nations, trans. William Cobbett (Philadelphia: Thomas Bradford, 1795), 287–88.

70 Benjamin Franklin’s program: PBF, 6: 608–10; PTJ, 7: 491–92.

70 “softening and diminishing”: PTJ, 7: 490–91.

70 “war gives the right to confiscate”: Brown v. United States, 12 U.S. 110, 125 (1814).

70 “mitigations”: 12 U.S. at 123–24.

71 “The Constitution of the United States”: 12 U.S. at 125.

71 “the subjects of hostile nations”: 12 U.S. at 134 (J. Story dissenting).

71 “there are great limitations” . . . “without making compensation”: James Kent, Commentaries on American Law (New York: O. Halsted, 1826–30), 1: 86–87.

71 made him a rich man: John H. Langbein, “Chancellor Kent and the History of Legal Literature,” Columbia Law Review 93 (1993): 565–66; Daniel J. Hulsebosch, “An Empire of Law: Chancellor Kent and the Revolution in Books in the Early Republic,”Alabama Law Review 60 (2009): 377, 386.

71 “Private property on land”: Henry Wheaton, Elements of International Law: With a Sketch of the History of the Science (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1836), 252–54.

72 “Horses, cattle”: Philo Camillus No. 2 [New York, Aug. 7, 1795], PAH, 19: 101.

72 a provision protecting slave property: Maya Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011), 80; David Duncan Wallace, The Life of Henry Laurens, with a Sketch of the Life of Lieutenant-Colonel John Laurens (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1915), 402, 405.

72 “carrying away any Negroes”: Malloy, 1: 586, 589.

72 took at least 3,000 slaves: Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles, 89–90; Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961), 167–69; Simon Schama, Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American Revolution (New York: Ecco, 2006), 147.

72 pressed the British for a return: ASP: Foreign Relations, 1: 190–202.

72 John Jay argued for compensation: Combs, The Jay Treaty, 155; John Bassett Moore, History and Digest of the International Arbitrations to Which the United States Has Been a Party (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1898), 1: 350–90; Walter Stahr, John Jay: Founding Father (New York: Hambledon, 2005), 204, 317–18.

73 Cockburn began raiding: Latimer, 1812: War with America, 159–61; John Basset Moore, A Digest of International Law (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1906), 7: 345–46.

73 escaped from their masters: Frank A. Cassell, “Slaves of the Chesapeake Bay Area and the War of 1812,” Journal of Negro History 57, no. 2 (1972): 144–55; Christopher T. George, “Mirage of Freedom: African Americans in the War of 1812,” Maryland Historical Magazine 91, no. 4 (1996): 427–50.

73 to resell them in the West Indies: See “Negro Stealing,” Palladium of Liberty (Fauquier County, Va.), January 8, 1814; “Norfolk Public Ledger,” Daily National Intelligencer (Washington, DC), April 12, 1815; “Editorial,” Raleigh Register, April 7, 1815; “List of American Vessels Captured,” Commercial Advertiser (Maryland), March 12, 1814.

73 “enemy at home”: George, “Mirage of Freedom,” 437.

73–74 “flocking to the enemy” . . . “conflagration throughout these counties”: H. W. Flournoy, Calendar of Virginia State Papers and Other Manuscripts (Richmond, VA: R. F. Walker, 1892), 10: 367–68; see also 10: 337–38; Joseph Carrington Cabell to Hugh Nelson, February 17, 1814, Cabell Family Papers, University of Virginia.

74 Haiti in the 1790s: Alfred N. Hunt, Haiti’s Influence on Antebellum America: Slumbering Volcano in the Caribbean (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988).

74 a slave named Gabriel: See Douglas R. Egerton, Gabriel’s Rebellion: The Virginia Slave Conspiracies of 1800 and 1802 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993).

74 executions and deportations: George, “Mirage of Freedom,” 436.

74 “external enemies”: James Barbour to James Madison, February 17, 1814, James Madison Papers, LC.

74 small vessels well-secured: Cassell, “Slaves of the Chesapeake Bay Area,” 147.

74 “as free settlers”: Ibid., 150.

74 creation of a Colonial Corps: Latimer, 1812: War with America, 249.

74 3,000–5,000 slaves: Cassel, “Slaves of the Chesapeake Bay Area,” 154.

75 “iniquitous scheme”: William Lee Miller, Arguing About Slavery: The Great Battle in the United States Congress (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996), 162.

75 “great and foul stain”: Alan Nevins, ed., The Diary of John Quincy Adams, 1794–1845 (New York: Longmans, Green, 1928), 228–29.

75 “seduction”: Adams, ed., Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, 3: 92.

75 “Our object” . . . “from capture”: ASP: Foreign Relations, 4: 117.

75 After much back-and-forth: Ibid., 3: 733.

75 “Slaves or other private property”: Malloy, 1: 613.

76 In the British view: Mary R. Bullard, Black Liberation on Cumberland Island in 1815 (South Dartmouth, MA: M. R. Bullard, 1983), 86–87; ASP: Foreign Relations, 6: 339–55.

76 “a violent and unnatural construction”: Adams, ed., Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, 5: 159.

76 “dishonorable war”: Ibid., 5: 161.

76 “deviations from the usages of war”: Ibid., 3: 257.

76 “table or a chair”: Ibid.

76 “There is something whimsical”: Ibid., 5: 160.

76 slaveholder Henry Middleton: Samuel Flagg Bemis, John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), 263.

76 unlawfully stealing slaves: Adams, ed., Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, 5: 161.

76 a mixed Anglo-American commission: Bemis, John Quincy Adams, 293.

76 to negotiate with the British: ASP: Foreign Relations, 6: 346–55.

77 rushed pell-mell to make claims: See Don Fehrenbacher & Ward M. McAfee, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 96–97.

77 “private property”: ASP: Foreign Relations, 4: 123.

77 When Spain negotiated a treaty: Ibid., 1: 278–79.

Chapter 3. A False Feeling of Mercy

79 “The sovereign Editor”: American poet John Hunter Waddell, Waddell to Coleman, Facts and Fancy—As You Like It—Go On, or Stop (New York: n.p., 1819), 6.

79 “I would barely remark”: PAJ, 4: 149.

79 “a prisoner of war had a right”: John Reid & Henry Eaton, The Life of Andrew Jackson: Major General in the Service of the United States (Philadelphia: M. Carey & Son, 1817), 12.

80 deep wound: PAJ, 1: 9 n. 4.

80 left him utterly alone: Sean Wilentz, Andrew Jackson (New York: Times Books, 2005), 17.

81 “We might have been taken”: Raymond Walters, Jr., Alexander James Dallas: Lawyer—Politician—Financier (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1943), 160–61.

82 “forbearance and urbanity”: G. Edward White, The Marshall Court and Cultural Change, 1815–1835 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 208.

82 long vindication of American rights: Robert Goodloe Harper, Observations on the Dispute Between the United States and France, Addressed by Robert Goodloe Harper, of South Carolina, to His Constituents, in May, 1797 (Philadelphia: Philanthropic Press, 1798). Harper was also one of the strongest advocates of building a strong navy to protect American commercial rights. See Craig L. Symonds, Navalists and Antinavalists: The Naval Policy Debate in the United States, 1785–1827 (Wilmington: University of Delaware Press, 1980), 77.

82 immediately serialized: American Law Journal (Philadelphia) 3, no. 2 (1810): i–218.

82 foundational elements of the curriculum: David Hoffman, A Course of Legal Study: Respectfully Addressed to the Students of Law in the United States (Baltimore: Coale & Maxwell, 1817), 242.

83 “progress of civilization”: Henry Wheaton, Elements of International Law: With a Sketch of the History of the Science (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1836), 254.

83 “common standard of right and duty”: James Kent, A Lecture, Introductory to a Course of Law Lectures in Columbia College, Delivered February 2, 1824 (New York: Clayton & Van Norden, 1824), 15.

83 Story was doubtless the most learned justice: See R. Kent Newmeyer, Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story: Statesman of the Old Republic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985).

83 a technical book for lawyers: Joseph Story, A Selection of Pleadings in Civil Actions (Salem, MA: Barnard B. Macanulty, 1805).

83 two classic English law books: Joseph Chitty, A Practical Treatise on Bills of Exchange, Checks on Bankers, Promissory Notes, Bankers’ Cash Notes, and Bank Notes, ed. Joseph Story (Boston: Farrand, Mallory & Co., 1809); Charles Abbott, A Treatise of the Law Relative to Merchant Ships and Seamen, ed. Joseph Story (Newburyport, RI: Edward Little & Co., 1810).

83 “of more transcendent dignity”: Joseph Story, An Address Delivered Before the Members of the Suffolk Bar, at Their Anniversary: On the 4th of September, 1821, at Boston (Boston: Freeman & Bowles, 1821), 30.

84 a professional training ground: James L. Morrison, Jr., “The Best School in the World”: West Point, the Pre–Civil War Years, 1833–1866 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1986); William B. Skelton, An American Profession of Arms: The Army Officer Corps, 1784–1861 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 103–72.

84 in Vauban’s conception: Sebastien Le Prestre de Vauban, The New Method of Fortification as practiced by Monsieur de Vauban, Engineer-General of France: Together with a new Treatise of Geometry (6th edn.; London: C. Hitch & L. Hawes, 1762).

84 “a small number of fundamental principles”: Baron de Jomini, Summary of the Art of War, or a New Analytical Compendium of the Principal Combinations of Strategy, of Grand Tactics and of Military Policy (New York: Putnam, 1854), 14.

84 “ten positive maxims” . . . “natural genius” . . . “mechanism of determined wheelworks”: Jomini, Summary of the Art of War, 10, 14, 16.

85 for 100 years: “The New Infantry Tactics,” Army & Navy Chronicle 1 (1835): 332–33.

85 “rule and compass”: Skelton, An American Profession of Arms, 169.

85 standard writings of Vattel: Skelton, American Profession of Arms, 171.

85 switched to Kent’s Commentaries: Skelton’s American Profession of Arms, p. 171, gives the date 1825 for West Point’s adoption of Kent’s Commentaries, but Professor Daniel Hulsebosch of NYU, the leading authority on Kent’s books, believes the adoption could not have happened before 1826. In 1829, the Military Academy’s assignment of the book helped prompt a second print run—Hulsebosch, “An Empire of Law,” 386–87 n. 28.

85 the Army’s Articles of War: An Act for Establishing Rules and Articles for the Government of the Armies of the United States, Stat, 2: 359 (1806).

86 “little exposure to”: Matthew Moten, The Delafield Commission and the American Military Profession (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2000), 36.

86 a subject of ridicule: Skelton, An American Profession of Arms, 171–72.

86 the ubiquitous Vattel: General Regulations for the Army; or, Military Institutes (Philadelphia: M. Carey & Sons, 1821), title page.

86 “under the safeguard”: Ibid., 139.

86 “a strict observance of good order”: Ibid., 147.

87 “treaties, the laws of the United States”: Marine Rules and Regulations (Philadelphia: John Fenno, 1798), 27.

87 Congress invoked: Stat., 2: 45–53.

87 ship chaplains were required: John H. Schroeder, Matthew Calbraith Perry: Antebellum Sailor and Diplomat (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2001), 13.

87 the new Naval Academy: Peter Karsten, The Naval Aristocracy: The Golden Age of Annapolis and the Emergence of Modern American Navalism (New York: Free Press, 1972), 34–35.

87 “judicious apprehension”: Acts for the Government of the U.S. Navy Together with an Outline of the Course of Study in Political Science for the Graduating Class of the U.S. Naval Academy (Newport, RI: Frederick A. Pratt, 1865), 5.

87–88 often knew as much about the laws of war: See generally David F. Long, Gold Braid and Foreign Relations: Diplomatic Activities of U.S. Naval Officers, 1798–1883 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1988).

88 John Paul Jones: Stephen Howarth, To Shining Sea: A History of the United States Navy, 1775–1991 (New York: Random House, 1991), 41; Charles Oscar Paullin, Diplomatic Negotiations of American Naval Officers, 1778–1883 (Gloucester, MA: Smith, 1967), 26–37.

88 Latin American wars of independence: John H. Schroeder, Shaping a Maritime Empire: The Commercial and Diplomatic Role of the American Navy, 1829–1861 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985), 16–17.

88 “enlightened knowledge”: “U.S. Naval Lyceum,” The Naval Magazine 1, no. 1 (1836): 15–16.

88 A vast chasm: See, e.g., Edward M. Coffman, The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784–1898 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 77–102, 167–81; Skelton, An American Profession of Arms, 39.

88 the Heart-of-the-Sky God: Polly Schaafsma, “Head Trophies and Scalping: Images in Southwest Rock Art,” in Richard J. Chacon & David H. Dye, eds., The Taking and Displaying of Human Body Parts as Trophies by Amerindians (New York: Springer, 2007), 109.

89 In pre-contact California: Patricia M. Lambert, “Ethnographic and Linguistic Evidence for Human Trophy Taking in California,” in ibid., 66–67.

89 cut the fingers and toes: Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 3.

89 fed their male children: Schaafsma, “Head Trophies,” 113.

89 necklaces from the fingertips: Douglas Owsley et al., “Human Finger and Hand Bone Necklaces from the Plains and Great Basin,” in Chacon & Dye, eds., The Taking and Displaying of Human Body Parts, 124–66.

89 eating the hearts: Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Long-House: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 32–38; Barbara Graymont, The Iroquois in the American Revolution (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1972), 18.

89 roasted the heads: Nancy J. Curtin, The United Irishmen: Popular Politics in Ulster and Dublin, 1791–1798 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 217.

89 heads impaled on spikes: David A. Wilson, United Irishmen, United States: Immigrant Radicals in the Early Republic (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 32; Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010), 88.

89 cut off the head: John K. Mahon, History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842 (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1967), 218.

89 bounties for Indian scalps: Nicholas Parrillo, Against the Profit Motive (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012).

89 shipped the heads: Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier, 1846–1890 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2003), 170.

89 “known rule of warfare”: Worthington Chauncey Ford, ed., The Writings of John Quincy Adams (New York: Macmillan, 1913–17), 5: 125–26.

90 the “mourning war”: Richter, The Ordeal of the Long-House, 32–38.

90 excruciating forms of torture killing: Daniel K. Richter, “War and Culture: The Iroquois Experience,” William & Mary Quarterly (3d series): 40 (no. 4): 540–44, 558–59.

90 Colonel William Crawford: Peter Silver, Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2008), 281–82; Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 395.

91 “earned posthumous esteem”: Adam J. Hirsch, “The Collision of Military Cultures in Seventeenth-Century New England,” Journal of American History 74 (1988): 1187, 1192.

91 The logic of mourning war: Richter, “War and Culture,” 540–44; see also Wayne E. Lee, “Peace Chiefs and Blood Revenge: Patterns of Restraint in Native American Warfare, 1500–1800,” Journal of Military History 71, no. 3 (2007): 701.

91 “farre lesse bloudy”: Hirsch, “Collision of Military Cultures,” 1191.

91 “stamped and tore”: Ibid., 1202.

91 the Wampanoag of New England: Patrick Malone, The Skulking Way of War: Technology and Tactics Among the New England Indians (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1991).

91 “hundreds of fields”: Don Higginbotham, The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practices, 1763–1789 (New York: Macmillan, 1971), 326–27.

92 “The reason”: John Winthrop, Winthrop’s Journal “History of New England,” 1630–1649, ed. James K. Hosmer (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1908), 1: 218–19.

92 “manage their warr fairly”: Hirsch, “Collision of Military Cultures,” 1208.

92 smallpox-infected blankets: Colin G. Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 5.

92 “he would never spare”: John D. Barnhart, ed., Henry Hamilton and George Rogers Clark in the American Revolution with the Unpublished Journal of Lieut. Gov. Henry Hamilton (Crawfordsville, IN: R. E. Banta, 1951), 189; Gregory T. Knouff, “An ‘Arduous Service’: The Pennsylvania Backcountry Soldiers’ Revolution,” Pennsylvania History 61 (1994): 45, 64.

92 “nothing less than a war”: Skelton, American Profession of Arms, 320.

92 “all the rights of war”: Francisco Vitoria, Vitoria: Political Writings, ed. Anthony Pagden & Jeremy Lawrance (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 283.

92 “all men believe must be true”: Hugo Grotius, The Rights of War and Peace, ed. Richard Tuck (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 2005), 1: 161.

92 “When we are at war”: Emmerich de Vattel, The Law of Nations, trans. Joseph Chitty (Philadelphia: T. & J. W. Johnson & Co., 1867), bk 3, §141, p. 348.

93 “the Christian nations of Europe”: James Kent, Commentaries on American Law (New York: O. Halsted, 1826), 1: 3–4.

93 “savage state”: Ibid., 1: 52.

93 “can only spring up among nations”: Henry Wheaton, Elements of International Law: With a Sketch of the History of the Science (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1836), 43.

93 “entirely overlooked”: Ibid., 140.

93 “Why do we attempt”: David S. Heidler & Jeanne T. Heidler, Old Hickory’s War: Andrew Jackson and the Quest for Empire (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003), 17.

93 “cases of necessity”: PAJ, 4: 149.

93 Historians have been too quick: For a recent example in an otherwise excellent article, see Deborah Rosen, “Wartime Prisoners and the Rule of Law: Andrew Jackson’s Military Tribunals During the First Seminole War,” Journal of the Early Republic 28, no. 4 (2008): 559, 593.

94 In the just war tradition: Stephen C. Neff, War and the Law of Nations: A General History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

94 “rules that shall be more certain”: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk 3, §189, p. 381.

94 “sure and easy”: Ibid., bk 3, §173, p. 369.

94 “continual accusations” . . . “utterly destroyed”: Ibid., bk 3, §173, p. 369.

95 “the so-called laws of war”: Higginbotham, War of American Independence, 13.

95 tiny fraction of the size: David M. Kennedy, “War and the American Character,” The Nation, May 3, 1975, p. 522.

95 “free born sons” . . . “national vengeance”: Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Empire, 1767–1821 (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), 168–69—cited hereafter as Remini, Andrew Jackson (I).

95 executed captured Indian combatants: J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 216, 220, 225.

95 inside the stockade at Fort Mims: Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 354–55.

95 “We shot them like dogs”: Remini, Andrew Jackson (I), 193.

95 “Half-consumed human bodies”: Ibid., 193.

96 close to 2,000 Creek Indians: Ibid., 206, 216.

96 At Horseshoe Bend: Armstrong Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, 1675–1815 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998), 159.

96 bridle reins: H. S. Halbert & T. H. Ball, The Creek War of 1813 and 1814 (Chicago: Donohue & Henneberry, 1895), 275–78.

96 cut the tips of the noses: Ibid., 275–78.

96 “unprovoked, inhuman”: Stat., 7: 120.

96 killing the more than forty men: John K. Mahon, “The First Seminole War: November 21, 1817–May 24, 1818,” Florida Historical Quarterly 77, no. 1 (1998): 62, 64.

96 smashed their skulls: Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars (New York: Viking, 2001), 133.

97 “mildness and humanity” . . . “impunity”: Waldo S. Putnam, Memoirs of Andrew Jackson, Major-General in the Army of the United States, and Commander in Chief of the Division of the South (Hartford, CT: John Russell, Jr., 1818), 294.

97 took them as prisoners: Remini, Andrew Jackson (I), 213.

97 hundreds of scalps: ASP: Military Affairs, 1: 704, 736.

98 war poles festooned: Ibid, 1: 699–700.

98 luring them aboard: Ibid., 1: 700; Remini, Andrew Jackson (I), 354.

98 “will end the Indian war”: ASP: Military Affairs, 1: 701.

98 Arbuthnot and Ambrister on trial: Frank L. Owsley, Jr., “Ambrister and Arbuthnot: Adventurers or Martyrs for British Honor,” Journal of the Early Republic 5 (1985): 289.

98 Jackson charged the two men: ASP: Military Affairs, 1: 721, 731.

98 cruel in the extreme: Ibid., 1: 723–26.

98 “as a nation more cruel”: Ibid., 1: 724.

98 Witnesses with long-standing grudges: Owsley, “Ambrister and Arbuthnot,” 295, 303–04.

99 “an established principle”: ASP: Military Affairs, 1: 734.

100 Monroe submitted to Congress: Richardson, 2: 42–43.

100 condemning the executions: Annals of Congress, 15th Cong., 2nd. sess., 584.

100 Thomas Nelson of Virginia: Ibid., 515–17.

100 Richard Mentor Johnson: Ibid., 518–27.

100 John Marshall’s Supreme Court: Jean Edward Smith, John Marshall: Definer of a Nation (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1996), 318–19.

100 an outlaw of the Marquis de Lafayette: Annals of Congress, 15th Cong., 2nd. sess., 517, 586.

100 “Where was the absolute necessity”: Ibid., 516.

101 “In one day”: Ibid., 588.

101 “one of the best speeches”: Robert Remini, Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1991), 163.

101 “fair and open”: Annals of Congress, 15th Cong., 2nd. sess., 637.

101 “the laws of civilized nations”: Ibid., 639.

101 “most cheerfully”: Ibid., 647.

101 “The eyes of the whole world”: Ibid., 654.

101 “our principles”: Ibid., 640.

101 “sat stony-faced”: Remini, Henry Clay, 163.

101 “clear principle”: Annals of Congress, 15th Cong., 2nd. sess., 657.

101 “banditti” or “pirates on land”: Ibid., 664.

102 “an advocate of mercy”: Ibid., 668.

102 “let no false feeling”: Ibid., 673.

102 “all the proceedings of Gen. Jackson”: Ibid., 674.

102 “tribe of savages”: Ibid., 687–88.

102 “whatever degree of force”: Ibid., 689.

102 “these vagrant savages”: Ibid., 706.

102 James Barbour of Virginia: Ibid., 764.

102 “while we are searching our law books”: Ibid., 664.

102 “General Jackson, in the wilds”: Ibid., 1039.

102 “inflated appeals”: Ibid., 980.

102 would cut off the ears: Heidler & Heidler, Old Hickory’s War, 218.

103 “I was not prepared”: William Earl Weeks, John Quincy Adams and American Global Empire (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1992), 144.

103 “firebrands”: ASP: Foreign Relations, 539–46, esp. 541.

103 appeared in the administration organ: Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 159–68.

103 “a desperate clan of outlaws”: Waldo, Memoirs of Andrew Jackson, 281, 294, 299.

103 “delicate fastidiousness”: Annals of Congress, 15th Cong., 2nd. sess., 655.

103 “for the first time in their lives”: Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 159.

103 “Sir,” he said indignantly: Annals of Congress, 15th Cong., 2nd. sess., 716.

103 approval of European diplomatic corps: Ibid., 1094.

103 “learned Puffendorffs”: John H. Schroeder, Shaping a Maritime Empire: The Commercial and Diplomatic Role of the American Navy, 1829–1861 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985), 28.

103 “I, too,” hate the “tomahawk”: Annals of Congress, 15th Cong., 2nd. sess., 638.

104 “I have passed”: Heidler & Heidler, Old Hickory’s War, 218.

104 “to give no quarter”: Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 144.

104 “an unnecessary act”: ASP: Military Affairs, 1: 743.

104 “a strong advocate for neutral rights”: Ibid., 1: 742.

104 “in direct opposition”: Ibid., 1: 742.

104 “a wound”: Ibid., 1: 743.

105 “among the most immediate”: Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 168.

105 “gratitude” of the American people: PAJ, 4: 294–96.

105 to thank Jackson for his great successes: Journal of the House of Representatives of the State of New Hampshire, at Their Session, Begun . . . on the First Wednesday of June . . . 1819 (Concord, NH: Hill & Moore, 1819), 298.

105 “have been with you”: PAJ, 4: 294–96.

105 “the so-called rules of war”: Higginbotham, War of American Independence, 13.

106 “the laws of civilized nations”: Annals of Congress, 15th Cong., 2nd. sess., 639.

106 “our rule had been”: Ibid., 736.

106 “technical niceties”: Ibid., 745.

107 “that great general”: Ibid., 1115.

107 booty and plunder: John Missall & Mary Lou Missall, The Seminole Wars: America’s Longest Indian Conflict (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004), 132–33.

107 using flags of truce: John K. Mahon, History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842 (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1967), 214–17.

107 “unprecedented violation”: Missall & Missall, The Seminole Wars, 141.

107 “another breach”: “Another Breach of National Honor,” The Philanthropist, Jan. 30, 1838, p. 4.

107 Seminole named Coacoochee: Missall & Missall, The Seminole Wars, 141.

108 bloodhounds to track: Ibid., 171.

Chapter 4. Rules of Wrong

109 “What is war”: Charles Sumner, The True Grandeur of Nations: An Oration Before the Authorities of the City of Boston, July 4, 1845 (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1893), 48.

109 Crisp uniforms: Anne-Marie Taylor, Young Charles Sumner and the Legacy of the Enlightenment, 1811–1851 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001), 177.

109 local military academy: David Donald, Charles Sumner and the Coming of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960), 11.

109 novels of Sir Walter Scott: Ibid., 16.

109 Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story: Ibid., 23.

110 took over Story’s course: Ibid., 34.

110 the Continent’s most distinguished: Ibid., 68.

110 “trial of right”: Ibid., 16.

110 “be ranked as crime”: Ibid., 17.

110 “Laws of war” . . . “contradictory combination”: Charles Sumner, The True Grandeur of Nations: An Oration Before the Authorities of the City of Boston, July 4, 1845 (Boston: J. H. Eastburn, 1845). Sumner edited the wording of this passage in subsequent editions. For the variation, see Sumner, The True Grandeur (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1893), 28–29n.

110 “Viewed in the unclouded”: Sumner, The True Grandeur (1893), 48.

110 “comfort to wretchedness”: Ibid., 9.

110 “absorbed in feats” . . . “Christian brotherhood”: Ibid., 10.

110 “so many lions”: Taylor, Young Charles Sumner, 187–89.

110 “criminal and impious custom”: Sumner, The True Grandeur (1893), 45.

111 “Our country cannot”: Ibid., 128.

111 group of pacifists: Valerie H. Ziegler, The Advocates of Peace in Antebellum America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992).

111 using force in any way: Charles DeBenedetti, The Peace Reform in American History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980), 49.

111 The episode began in late 1837: Kenneth R. Stevens, Border Diplomacy: The Caroline and McLeod Affairs in Anglo-American-Canadian Relations, 1837–1842 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1989).

112 “necessity of self-defence”: PDW: Diplomatic Papers, 1: 67.

112 to conclude that Nazi Germany: Yoram Dinstein, War, Aggression, and Self-Defence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 4th ed., 2005), 249; Timothy Kearley, “Raising the Caroline,” Wisconsin International Law Journal 17 (1999): 325.

113 passenger named Amos Durfee: R. Y. Jennings, “The Caroline and McLeod Cases,” American Journal of International Law 32, no. 1 (1938): 82, 84.

113 made Durfee a martyr: Stevens, Border Diplomacy, 15–25.

113 McLeod was notorious: Ibid., 71–72.

113 “aggravate beyond measure” . . . “long since banished”: PDW: Diplomatic Papers, 1: 43.

113 “To hold the prisoner guilty”: People v. McLeod, 1 Hill. 377, 514 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1841).

114 “under any obligation”: McLeod, 1 Hill. at 533.

114 “a mistake”: McLeod, 1 Hill. at 592.

114 New York’s attorney general: McLeod, 1 Hill. at 535–36.

114 “informal and illegitimate”: Emmerich de Vattel, The Law of Nations, trans. Joseph Chitty (Philadelphia: T. & J. W. Johnson & Co., 1867), bk. §68, 320.

114 “the hazards of war”: McLeod, 1 Hill. at 558.

114 “outrage of our rights”: Stevens, Border Diplomacy, 97.

114–15 Palmerston instructed Fox: Howard Jones, To the Webster-Ashburton Treaty: A Study in Anglo-American Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1977), 51.

115 “war would be the inevitable”: Stevens, Border Diplomacy, 88.

115 Peel was holding secret: Jones, To the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 62, 68.

115 James Henry Hammond: Robert V. Remini, Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 541.

115 to sustain the country’s honor: Richard N. Current, “Webster’s Propaganda and the Ashburton Treaty,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 34 (1947): 187–88.

115 “the whole frontier”: Jennings, “Caroline and McLeod,” 92 n. 37.

115 to prepare for the impending conflict: Stevens, Border Diplomacy, 87.

115 “a principle of public law”: PDW: Diplomatic Papers, 1: 47.

115 “would become a pirate”: Review, North American Review 142 (January 1849): 1, 30–31.

115 dispatched Attorney General John Crittenden: Stevens, Border Diplomacy, 95–97.

115 pressed New York’s governor: Ibid., 93–95.

115–16 asked the U.S. district attorney: Ibid., 123.

116 Governor William Henry Seward: Jones, To the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 55–56.

116 “no musty volumes”: Cong. Globe, 27th Cong., 1st Sess., p. 43.

116 a verdict of not guilty: Marcus Tullius Cicero Gould, The Trial of Alexander Mcleod, for the Murder of Amos Durfee (New York: Gould’s Stenographical Reporter, 1841), 358.

116 arrested another alleged participant: David Bederman, “The Cautionary Tale of Alexander Mcleod: Superior Orders and the American Writ of Habeas Corpus,” Emory Law Journal 41 (1992): 515, 526.

117 “Mexico”: Messages of the President of the United States, House Exec. Doc. no. 60, 30th Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1848), 8.

117 “unjust, illegal”: House Exec. Doc. no. 60, p. 423.

118 Taylor and his Mexican counterpart: Ibid., p. 140.

118 through white truce flags: E.g., ibid., p. 346.

118 formal capitulation agreements: E.g., ibid., p. 346.

118 readily exchanged prisoners: K. Jack Bauer, The Mexican War, 1846–1848 (New York: Macmillan, 1974), 81.

118 routinely paroled captured Mexican: Paul J. Springer, America’s Captives: Treatment of POWs from the Revolutionary War to the War on Terror (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010), 75–77.

118 “as prisoners of war”: House Exec. Doc. no. 60, p. 292.

118 “kindness and attention”: Ibid., p. 292.

118 “protected in their rights”: Ibid., pp. 166–68.

118 “We come to make no war”: Ibid., p. 166.

118 “within the rules”: Ibid., p. 2.

118 known locally as the “Killers”: Paul Foos, A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair: Soldiers and Social Conflict During the Mexican-American War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 42.

118 “a lawless set”: Felice Flannery Lewis, Trailing Clouds of Glory: Zachary Taylor’s Mexican War Campaign and His Emerging Civil War Leaders (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama, 2010), 93.

119 “G-d d——d” thieves: Foos, A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair, 123.

119 “Goths and Vandals”: Justin H. Smith, “American Rule in Mexico,” American Historical Review 23, no. 2 (January 1918): 287, 296.

119 “like a body of hostile”: Marcus Cunliffe, Soldiers and Civilians: The Martial Spirit in America, 1775–1865 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968), 84.

119 “to make Heaven weep”: Robert W. Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in the American Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 35.

119 “was everywhere marked”: Abiel Abbott Livermore, War with Mexico Reviewed (Boston: American Peace Society, 1850), 140.

119 “inhumanities”: Mary R. Block, “ ‘The Stoutest Son’: The Mexican-American War Journal of Henry Clay, Jr.,” Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 160, no. 1 (2008): 5, 20.

119 “had committed offenses”: Foos, A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair, 123.

119 Taylor’s popular quartermaster: John S. D. Eisenhower, So Far from God: The U.S. War with Mexico, 1846–1848 (New York: Random House, 1989), 65 n.

119 “The weapon used”: George Wilkins Kendall, Dispatches from the Mexican War, ed. Lawrence Delbert Cress (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 413.

120 switched their tactics: Irving W. Levinson, Wars Within Wars: Mexican Guerrillas, Domestic Elites, and the United States of America, 1846–1848 (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 2005), 34–35; Mark Saad Saka, Peasant Nationalism and Social Unrest in the Mexican Huasteca, 1848–1884 (Houston: University of Houston Press, 1995), 176–85.

120 “for the establishment of”: Levinson, Wars Within Wars, 34–35.

120 stunning attack: Bauer, Mexican War, 218.

120 “an indiscriminate slaughter”: S. Compton Smith, M.D., Chile Con Carne; or, The Camp and the Field (New York: Miller & Curtis, 1857), 161–62.

120 tied to a prickly pear: Livermore, War with Mexico Reviewed, 145–46.

121 “dreadfully wounded”: Smith, Chile con Carne, 107–09.

121 “murder the soldiers”: J. Jacob Oswandel, Notes on the Mexican War (Philadelphia: J. Jacob Oswandel, 1885), 215–16.

121 the guerrillas were heroes: Albert C. Ramsay, ed., The Other Side; or, Notes for the History of the War Between Mexico and the United States (New York: John Wiley, 1850), 441.

121 while they huddled inside: Foos, A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair, 124.

121 twenty-four Mexicans: Bauer, Mexican War, 220; Joseph Wheelan, Invading Mexico: America’s Continental Dream and the Mexican War (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007), 293.

121 “wave of vengeance” . . . “desolation and ruin”: Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas, 36.

121 “desolation and death”: Ramsay, ed., The Other Side, 442.

122 captured by the British: Allan Peskin, Winfield Scott and the Profession of Arms (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2003), 27–29.

122 In the decade thereafter: Ibid., 63–67.

122 the Napoleonic Wars of Europe: Timothy D. Johnson, Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 166–69.

122 Taylor had long complained: House Exec. Doc. no. 60, p. 1138; Foos, A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair, 121–23.

123 “to take cognizance”: House Exec. Doc. no. 60, pp. 369–70, 1265.

123 Scott thought Marcy’s advice: Winfield Scott, Memoirs of Lieut.-Gen. Winfield Scott (New York: Sheldon & Co., 1864), 2: 392–93 n.

123 no need for legislation: Henry O. Whiteside, “Winfield Scott and the Mexican Occupation: Policy and Practice,” Mid-America 52 (1970): 102, 106.

123 “too explosive”: Scott, Memoirs, 2: 393.

123 “the terrier mumbles”: Ibid., 2: 394.

123 “military commissions”: General Orders No. 20, February 19, 1847, BL.

123 He distributed the order widely: General Orders No. 87, April 1, 1847, House Exec. Doc. No. 56, 30th Cong., 1st Sess., p. 104 (Vera Cruz); General Orders No. 190, June 26, 1847, NARA (Puebla); General Orders No. 287, September 17, 1847, NARA (Mexico City).

123 303 Americans: David Glazier, “Precedents Lost: The Neglected History of the Military Commission,” Virginia Journal of International Law 46 (2005): 5, 37.

124 “chivalric generosity”: Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas, 32.

124 “Mexican capital was not conquered”: Emma Willard, Last Leaves of American History: Comprising a Separate History of California (New York: George P. Putnam, 1849), 97–98.

124 “It would be a blessing”: Ethan Allen Hitchcock, “Commentary on Winfield Scott’s Campaign” (n.p., n.d.), 89–90, BL.

124 “inhabitants of the hostile country”: House Exec. Doc. no. 60, p. 1266.

124 a term of art that excluded soldiers: See Charles James, A Collection of the Charges, Opinions, and Sentences of General Courts Martial (London: T. Egerten, 1820), 191, 569 (describing parties as either soldiers or “inhabitant[s]”); William Hough, The Practice of Courts-Martial (London: Kingsbury, Parbury & Allen, 2nd ed., 1825), 368, 796 (same as James, also listing names in index as “inhabitant” if not a soldier); Thomas Frederick Simmons, Remarks on the Constitution and Practice of Courts Martial(London: F. Pickney, 2nd ed., 1835), 27, 41–44 (describing parties as either soldiers or “inhabitant[s]”).

124 “injuries committed . . .”: Correspondence Between the Secretary of War and Generals Scott and Taylor, House Exec. Doc. 56, 30th Cong., 1st sess. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1848), 127.

124–25 “hardly recognized as a legitimate”: House Exec. Doc. no. 60, p. 1007.

125 attacks by “robbers”: Ibid., p. 1201.

125 “guerrilla parties”: Levinson, Wars Within Wars, 67.

125 “as many Mexicans”: Walter P. Lane, The Adventures and Recollections of General Walter P. Lane, a San Jacinto Veteran (Marshall, TX: Herald Print, 1887), 48.

125 to execute the guerrilla leader: Message from the President of the United States to the Two Houses of Congress, at the Commencement of the Second Session of the Thirtieth Congress. December 5, 1848, House Exec. Doc. no. 1, 30th Cong., 2nd Sess. (Washington, DC: Wendell & Van Benthuysen, 1848), 100.

125 styled as “councils of war”: Erika Myers, “Conquering Peace: Military Commissions as a Lawfare Strategy in the Mexican War,” American Journal of Comparative Law 35 (2008): 201, 229–30.

125 Some 6,825 American soldiers: John Whiteclay Chambers III et al., eds., Oxford Companion to American Military History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 212.

125 twenty-one accused recruiters: Glazier, “Precedents Lost,” 37.

125 “almost always death”: Myers, “Conquering Peace,” 230.

126 “atrocious bands”: General Orders No. 372, Dec. 12, 1847, NARA.

126 not a single surviving record: Myers, “Conquering Peace,” 230.

126 “guerrilla warfare”: William Winthrop, Military Law and Precedents (Boston: Little, Brown, 2nd ed., 1896), 2: 1299.

126 “without the sanction”: Myers, “Conquering Peace,” 233.

127 “of guarding against the mischief”: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk 3, §179, p. 375.

127 by knights from around Europe: M. H. Keen, The Laws of War in the Late Middle Ages (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965).

127 dwindled into insignificance: William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (1768; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 3: 68.

127 charged him with treason: Sidney B. Fay, “The Execution of the Duc D’Enghien (II),” American Historical Review 4, no. 1 (1898): 21, 26 (describing the charge that d’Enghien had “borne arms against the republic”).

127 “worse than a crime”: Ibid., 37.

127 executed Don Giovanni Batista: Raoul Guêze et al., La Rivolta anti-Francese Delle Calabrie, 1806–1813 (Cosenza, Italy: Editoriale Progetto, 2000); Milton Finley, The Most Monstrous of Wars: The Napoleonic Guerrilla War in Southern Italy, 1806–1811(Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994), 139.

128 “to animadvert upon them”: Blackstone, Commentaries, 3: 68.

129 elaborate taxonomies: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk 2, §§339–54, pp. 281–89.

129 “the established usages”: Henry Wheaton, Elements of International Law: With a Sketch of the History of the Science (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1836), 253–54.

129 “a Penal or Criminal Law”: Francis Lieber to Henry Halleck, October 3, 1863, FLP HL.

129 “the cold steel of the bayonet”: Elbridge Colby, “War Crimes,” Michigan Law Review 23 (1925): 482, 496.

129 “soldiers who employ means”: G. F. von Martens, Summary of the Law of Nations: Founded on the Treaties and Customs of the Modern Nations of Europe, trans. William Cobbett (London: William Cobbett, 1795), bk 3, ch. 3, §6, pp. 284–85.

129 “personally guilty”: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk 3, §150, p. 353.

129 foreign military recruiters and assassins: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk 3, §15, p. 298; bk 3 §155, 357–61.

129 “not a relationship”: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Rousseau: The Social Contract and Other Later Political Writings, ed. and trans. Victor Gourevitch (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 46–47.

130 “a universal right of war”: Scott, Memoirs, 575.

130 “ought to be confined”: James Kent, Commentaries on American Law (New York: O. Halsted, 1826–30), 1: 88.

130 “nothing wrong in the rule”: Thomas Maitland Marshall, “Diary and Memoranda of William L. Marcy,” American Historical Review 24, no. 3 (1919): 444, 459 n. 23.

131 “any of the guard”: William Jay, A Review of the Causes and Consequences of the Mexican War (Boston: American Peace Society, 1853), 206–07.

132 more than a quarter of his troops: Levinson, Wars Within Wars, 61.

132 “the natural state of man”: William B. Skelton, An American Profession of Arms: The Army Officer Corps, 1784–1861 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 327.

132 “moral distempers”: Peskin, Winfield Scott, 101.

133 William Marcy: Larry Gara, The Presidency of Franklin Pierce (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991), 138.

133 The British government agreed: Sir Francis Piggot, The Declaration of Paris, 1856: A Study (London: University of London Press, 1919), 13–18.

133 “most auspicious”: House Exec. Doc. no. 103, 33d Cong., 1st Sess. (1854), 15.

133 “a fair prospect”: Ibid., p. 12.

134 For centuries, private vessels: Mark Grimsley, “The Pirate and the State: Henry Morgan and Irregular Naval Warfare in the Early Modern World,” in Jack Sweetman, ed., New Interpretations in Naval History: Selected Papers from the Tenth Naval History Symposium (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1993), 29–43.

134 “responsible to”: Sir Robert Phillimore, Commentaries Upon International Law (Philadelphia: T. & J. W. Johnson, 1854–60), 1: 290.

134 Benjamin Franklin argued: PBF, 37: 618–19.

134 The 1776 model treaty: JCC, 5: 584.

134 The 1785 treaty: Malloy, 2: 1483.

134 Jefferson’s draft treaty with Austria: Edmund C. Bennett, “Note on American Negotiations for Commercial Treaties, 1776–1786,” American Historical Review 16, no. 3 (1911): 579, 587.

134 a U.S. treaty with Spain: Malloy, 2: 1645.

134 “civilization and Christianity”: ASP: Naval Affairs, 1: 723.

134 John Quincy Adams had advocated: James E. Lewis, Jr., John Quincy Adams: Policymaker for the Union (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2001), 83–84.

134 517 American privateering vessels: David S. Heidler & Jeanne T. Heidler, The Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1997), 429; Jerome R. Garitee, The Republic’s Private Navy: The American Privateering Business as Practiced by Baltimore During the War of 1812 (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1977), xvi, 244.

134 “from resorting to the merchant”: House Exec. Doc. no. 103, p. 13.

135 consisted of barely forty vessels: John J. Lalor, ed., Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and of the Political History of the United States (Chicago: Melbert B. Care, 1883), 2: 408–10, 984–90.

135 “was aimed exclusively”: George Mifflin Dallas, A Series of Letters from London Written During the Years 1856, ’57, ’58, ’59, and ’60 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1869), 1: 32–33, 75, 129–30.

135 “catch brother Jonathan”: Olive Anderson, “Some Further Light on the Inner History of the Declaration of Paris,” Law Quarterly Review 76 (1960): 379, 384.

135 no longer an effective mode: Charles Francis Adams, Seward and the Declaration of Paris: A Forgotten Diplomatic Episode, April–August, 1861 (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1912), 14, 53–55; John W. Coogan, The End of Neutrality: The United States, Britain, and Maritime Rights, 1899–1915 (Ithaca. NY: Cornell University Press, 1981), 22–25; Edgar Stanton Maclay, A History of American Privateers (New York: D. Appleton, 1899), xxiii–xxiv; Bryan Ranft, “Restraints on War at Sea Before 1945,” in Michael Howard, ed., Restraints on War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 39–56; Theodore S. Woolsey, “The United States and the Declaration of Paris,” Yale Law Journal 3, no. 3 (1894): 77, 80.

135 learned to circumvent: Adams, Seward and the Declaration of Paris, 53–55; The Times (London), May 26, 1856.

135 “The capacity of carrying on”: The Times (London), May 26, 1856.

136 “to subserve their own interests”: Senate Exec. Doc. no. 104, 34th Cong., 1st Sess. (1856), 12.

136 “combined potentates”: Dallas, A Series of Letters from London, 1: 130, 2: 171.

136 “I am afraid”: “Mr. Cobden on Maritime Law,” The Times (London), December 11, 1856.

Part II A Few Things Barbarous or Cruel

139 Epigraph: AL to James C. Conkling, August 26, 1863, Basler, 6: 408.

Chapter 5. We Don’t Practise the Law of Nations

141 “I’m a good enough lawyer”: Don E. Fehrenbacher & Virginia Fehrenbacher, eds., Recollected Words of Abraham Lincoln (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), 423.

141 Lincoln himself bitterly opposed: Cong. Globe, 30th Cong., 1st sess., appendix, p. 94.

141 a brilliant battlefield tactician: Joseph E. Chance, Jefferson Davis’s Mexican War Regiment (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991), 98.

141–42 “I had a good many”: David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 45.

142 “knew absolutely nothing”: Charles Francis Adams, An Address on the Character and Services of William Henry Seward (Albany, NY: Weed, Parson & Co., 1873), 2.

142 the good sense to hide: Dean B. Mahin, One War at a Time: The International Dimensions of the American Civil War (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 1999), 2.

142 “know anything about diplomacy”: Mahin, One War at a Time, 2.

142 “We must not be enemies”: Basler, 4: 271.

142 “Acts of violence”: Ibid., 4: 265.

142 “be hospitable to a foe”: Howard C. Perkins, ed., Northern Editorials on Secession (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1942), 2: 785 (April 18, 1861).

142 “entitled to the considerations”: Ibid., 2: 1088 (May 30, 1861).

142 “no quarters should be shown”: Ibid., 2: 727 (April 13, 1861).

142 “war of extermination”: Ibid., 2: 746–47 (April 19, 1861).

142 “refusing to lower”: Elias B. Holmes to AL, April 20, 1861, ALP LC.

142–43 “vindictive, fierce”: “The Character of the Coming Campaign,” New York Herald, April 28, 1861, 4.

143 “Jeff. Davis & Co.”: Donald, Lincoln, 295.

143 “if the U.S. determined”: Lord Newton, Lord Lyons: A Record of British Diplomacy (London: Edward Arnold, 1913), 31, 33; see Craig L. Symonds, Lincoln and His Admirals (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 39–40.

144 The bumper crop of 1860: D. P. Crook, Diplomacy During the American Civil War (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975), 73–75.

144 “vexations beyond bearing”: Newton, Lord Lyons, 36.

144 “a regular blockade”: Ibid., 36.

145 “to set on foot”: Basler, 4: 339, 346–47.

145 Lincoln understood all too well: Theodore Calvin Peace & James G. Randall, eds., The Diary of Orville Hickman Browning (Springfield, IL: Illinois State Historical Library, 1925), 1: 489.

145 “Our ships”: Newton, Lord Lyons, 36.

145 “A nation cannot blockade”: Howard K. Beale, ed., The Diary of Edward Bates, 1859–1866 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1933), 427; see also Edward Bates, “Memorandum, April 15, 1861,” ALP LC.

145 “the legal and straightforward”: Montgomery Blair to AL, August 10, 1861, ALP LC.

145 “preferred an embargo” . . . “quasi government”: Gideon Welles, Lincoln and Seward: Remarks Upon the Memorial Address of Chas. Francis Adams on the Late Wm. H. Seward (New York: Sheldon & Co., 1874), 122–23.

145 “If the interdiction is to be”: Gideon Welles to AL, August 5, 1861, ALP LC.

145 “the blockade of the Southern ports”: William Howard Russell, My Diary North and South (New York: Harper & Bros., 1863), 177–78.

146 “the law of Nations”: Basler, 4: 339.

146 “strange inconsistency”: Welles, Lincoln and Seward, 128.

146 “to avoid complications” . . . “on our hands at once”: Ibid., 124.

146 “to conduct the war”: Charles M. Segal, Conversations with Lincoln (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1961), 114; see also Donald, Lincoln, 303.

147 The Union blockading squadron’s first capture: Symonds, Lincoln and His Admirals, 37–38.

147 captured a dozen: ORN, series 1, 5: 637.

147 the English bark Hiawatha: Stuart L. Bernath, Squall Across the Atlantic: American Civil War Prize Cases and Diplomacy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970), 22.

147 the schooner Tropic Wind: ORN, series 1, 5: 667.

147 intercepted more than 1,200 vessels: Prize Vessels: Letter from the Secretary of the Navy in answer to a resolution of the House of April 30, relative to prize vessels, House Exec. Doc. no. 279, 40th Cong., 2d Sess. (1868).

147 rail-thin and slightly stooped: Russell, My Diary North and South, 34; Glyndon G. van Deusen, William Henry Seward (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967).

147 “Seward is Weed”: Welles, Lincoln and Seward, 23.

148 Seward had been the favorite: Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005), 11–16.

148 “never given any particular” . . . “no lawyer and no statesman”: Charles Francis Adams, Seward and the Declaration of Paris: A Forgotten Diplomatic Episode, April–August, 1861 (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1912), 23–24.

148 “His view of the relations”: Newton, Lord Lyons, 30.

148 merely sixty-seven ships: Symonds, Lincoln and His Admirals, 49–50; John Niven, Gideon Welles: Lincoln’s Secretary of the Navy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973).

148 a navy comprised of 588 vessels: Basler, 7: 43.

148 never a perfectly tight fit: Bernath, Squall Across the Atlantic, 4–5, 11; Symonds, Lincoln and His Admirals, 38; cf. Stephen R. Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running During the Civil War (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1988); William N. Still, “A Naval Sieve: The Union Blockade in the Civil War,” U.S. Naval College Review 36 (1983): 38–45.

148–49 Yet the blockade deterred: Craig L. Symonds, The Civil War at Sea (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2009), 54–58; Crook, Diplomacy During the American Civil War, 61–62.

149 “the bold and vigorous mind”: Welles, Lincoln and Seward, 123.

149 “I am embarrassed”: Gideon Welles to AL, August 5, 1861, ALP LC.

149 “Every capture”: Ibid.

149 would minimize the conflict: Van Deusen, William Henry Seward, 300.

149 “looked in [a] book”: Gideon Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy Under Lincoln and Johnson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911), 2: 232.

150 denying Lincoln’s authority to suspend: See Carl B. Swisher, History of the Supreme Court of the United States: The Taney Period, 1836–64 (New York: Macmillan, 1974), 844–54.

150 “would end the war”: Samuel Shapiro, Richard Henry Dana, Jr., 1815–1882 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1961), 121.

150 “the foremost trial lawyer”: John D. Gordan III, “The Trial of the Officers and Crew of the Schooner ‘Savannah,’” Yearbook of the Supreme Court Historical Society (1983): 31, 39.

150 not to let the cases reach the Supreme Court: Edward Bates to William M. Evarts, March 11, 1862, letterbook B-5, Attorney General Papers, record group 60, NARA; Swisher, The Taney Period, 881–82.

150 adding a tenth seat: An Act to Provide Circuit Courts for the Districts of California and Oregon, and for Other Purposes, Stat., 12: 794; David M. Silver, Lincoln’s Supreme Court (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1998), 84. In the midst of a later court-packing controversy, Erwin Griswold of Harvard Law School explained the tenth circuit as an apolitical response to the founding of the Union Pacific Railroad, which made it possible for a justice to get to a new 10th circuit court based in California. See Hearings on S. 1392 Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 75th Cong., 1st sess. (1937), 763. Dean Griswold wanted to find a neutral basis for the Civil War court packing in order to deny a historical precedent to Franklin Roosevelt’s proposed New Deal court-packing plan.

150 upholding the blockade: The Prize Cases, 67 U.S. 635 (1863).

150 take the slavery question out of politics: Don E. Fehrenbacher, Dred Scott: Its Significance in American Law and Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 311–14.

151 “there must be war”: The Prize Cases, 67 U.S. at 644.

151 “The law of nations”: The Prize Cases, 67 U.S. at 670.

151 “may exercise both belligerent”: The Prize Cases, 67 U.S. at 673.

151 “Our case is double”: Charles Sumner, The Works of Charles Sumner (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1870–83), 7: 13.

152 “To a long continuance”: Bernath, Squall Across the Atlantic, 4–5.

152 a flotilla of 200 vessels: ORN, series 1, 17: 403.

152 “hope of crushing the rebellion”: ORN, series 1, 17: 192.

152 The Labuan was a neutral vessel: ORN, series 1, 17: 99–115; Bernath, Squall Across the Atlantic, 37–40.

153 restored the vessel: The Labuan, 14 F. Cas. 906 (D.C.N.Y. 1862).

153 seized a parade of British vessels: ORN, series 1, 18: 525 (Will o’ the Wisp); Bernath, Squall Across the Atlantic, 52–60.

153 ruled against U.S. Navy captors: E.g., The Dashing Wave, 72 U.S. 170 (1866); The Teresita, 72 U.S. 180 (1866); The Sir William Peel, 72 U.S. 517 (1866).

153 “large quantities of arms”: ORN, series 1, 1: 207.

153 Welles ordered the Navy: ORN, series 1, 1: 207–08.

154 captured the English bark Springbok: ORN, series 1, 2: 70.

154 “the voyage from London”: The Springbok, 72 U.S. 1, 28 (1866).

155 “when destined to the hostile country”: The Peterhoff, 72 U.S. 28, 59 (1866).

155 “humane policy”: Montague Bernard, A Historical Account of the Neutrality of Great Britain During the American Civil War (London: Longmans, Green, Reader & Dyer, 1870), 153.

155 “raised an inference”: Ibid., 503.

155 “Old Abe”: Bradford Perkins, The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations. Vol. 1: The Creation of a Republican Empire, 1776–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 223.

155 “scarcely needs to be considered”: Basler, 4: 441 n. 47.

156 facilitated the exit of foreign merchants: Bernard, Neutrality of Great Britain, 101, 240.

156 the status of foreign nationals: Ibid., 324.

156 subsequently seized the vessel back: Ibid., 325–28.

156 compensation of foreign nationals: Basler, 7: 38, 40–41.

157 sailed out of Charleston Harbor: John Thomas Scharf, History of the Confederate States Navy (New York: Rogers & Sherwood, 1887), 84–85.

157 Calvo had a wife: United States Census for 1850, Town of Columbia, County of Richland, South Carolina, roll M432_858, p. 20A.

157 a printer by trade: John C. Ellen, Jr., “Political Newspapers of the South Carolina Up Country 1850–1859: A Compendium,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 63 (1962): 158, 162.

157 Along with thirty-four other men: William Morrison Robinson, The Confederate Privateers (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1929), 89–92.

157 the promise of huge profits: Ibid., 30–46.

157 eventually capturing the Mary Alice and its crew: ORN, series 1, 6: 61–63, 68.

157 imprisoned at Fort Hamilton: OR, series 2, 3: 28.

158 “a poor man” . . . “considered and treated the same”: J. P. M. Calvo to AL, November 12, 1861, ALP LC.

158 “a good deal of joking”: Russell, My Diary North and South, 127.

158 “an easy remedy for that”: Ibid., 175.

158 “insane and blood-thirsty spirit”: “The Charleston Mercury on the Privateer Savannah,” Christian Recorder (Philadelphia), June 22, 1861.

158 “A just regard to humanity”: James D. Richardson, A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Confederacy (Nashville, TN: United States Publ. Co., 1905), 2: 115.

159 to accept belatedly the British invitation of 1856: Van Deusen, William Henry Seward, 297.

160 “only be because she is willing”: William Henry Seward to Charles Francis Adams, May 21, 1861, ALP LC.

160 “inconsistencies of the Northern people”: Russell, My Diary North and South, 559.

160 “Very well”: Jay Monaghan, Diplomat in Carpet Slippers: Abraham Lincoln Deals with Foreign Affairs (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1945), 82.

160 “within the rules of modern civilized”: Perkins, Creation of a Republican Empire, 222.

161 a federal grand jury in New York: A. F. Warburton, Trial of the Officers and Crew of the Privateer Savannah, on the Charge of Piracy, in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1862); Mark A. Weitz, The Confederacy on Trial: The Piracy and Sequestration Cases of 1861 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005).

161 a grand jury in Philadelphia: D. F. Murphy, The Jeff Davis Piracy Cases: Full Report of the Trial of William Smith for Piracy (Philadelphia: King & Baird, 1861).

161 verdict of guilty against William Smith: Murphy, Jeff Davis Piracy Cases, 99–100.

161 The New York trial: Gordan, “Trial of the Officers and Crew,” 34–39.

162 “as enemies, for the purpose”: Ibid., 124.

162 remember that their fathers: Ibid., 229.

162 transferred from the Tombs: Gordan, “Trial of the Officers and Crew,” 43.

162 At the end of May: OR, series 2, 3: 611.

162 the first great land battle of the war: On the importance of Bull Run for the privateering cases, see Adams, Seward and the Declaration of Paris, 42.

163 after an interview with Congressman Alfred Ely: Scharf, Confederate States Navy, 78. Scharf puts the Ely meeting on February 2, 1862. Ely met with Lincoln on the evening of December 29, 1861—see “The War for the Union,” New York Tribune, December 30, 1861, p. 5.

163 to draw from a tin: Alfred Ely, The Journal of Alfred Ely, a Prisoner of War in Richmond (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1862), 212–14.

163 commissioned only fifty-two privateers: Spencer C. Tucker, Blue and Gray Navies: The Civil War Afloat (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2006), 74.

163 lost interest in privateering: Robinson, Confederate Privateers, 32, 38–40.

163 a national celebrity: Nathaniel Philbrick, Sea of Glory: America’s Voyage of Discovery, the U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842 (New York: Viking Penguin, 2003), xv, xix, 300.

164 “the name of Wilkes”: Ibid., xxiv.

164 Welles appointed Wilkes: ORN, series 1, 1: 64–65.

164 under Captain Samuel F. Du Pont: Philbrick, Sea of Glory, 354.

164 Violating his orders: Norman B. Ferris, The Trent Affair: A Diplomatic Crisis (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1977), 18–19.

164 Wilkes heard rumors: ORN, series 1, 1: 143.

164 fired shots across its bow: Ferris, The Trent Affair, 21; Philbrick, Sea of Glory, 354; Symonds, Lincoln and His Admirals, 75.

165 Wilkes had scoured the law books: OR, series 2, 2: 1098.

165 consideration for the passengers and crew: ORN, series 1, 1: 184.

165 “a storm of exultation”: Russell, My Diary North and South, 573–78; see also Charles Francis Adams, “The Trent Affair,” American Historical Review 17 (April 1912): 540, 547–49.

165 “conduct in seizing”: Bernard, Neutrality of Great Britain, 194.

165 “such a burst of feeling”: Ferris, The Trent Affair, 179.

165 “in very great haste”: Charles Wilson to William H. Seward, November 27, 1861, ALP LC.

165 “England is exasperated”: Thurlow Weed to William H. Seward, December 4, 1861, ALP LC.

165 “deliberately settled upon”: Thurlow Weed to William H. Seward, December 11, 1861, ALP LC.

166 “The law of nations”: Beale, ed., Diary of Edward Bates, 202.

166 “embodiment of dispatches”: Adams, “Trent Affair,” 547.

166 Former U.S. attorneys general and secretaries of state: Ibid., 548 (Caleb Cushing and Edward Everett).

166 law professors at Harvard: Ibid., 548 (Theophilus Parsons).

166 leading prize court lawyers: Ibid., 549 (Richard Henry Dana).

166 “superseded the authority”: Newton, Lord Lyons, 1: 64.

166 But British lawyers and statesmen: Adams, “Trent Affair,” 554.

166 “a suitable apology”: John Russell to Richard B. Pemell (Lord Lyons), November 30, 1861, ALP LC.

166 Lyons was to request: Newton, Lord Lyons, 1: 61.

166 “timidly truckling”: Beale, ed., Diary of Edward Bates, 216.

167 “Cuban Missile Crisis”: Symonds, Lincoln and His Admirals, 94.

167 “taken into his own hands”: Newton, Lord Lyons, 1: 64.

168 “was really defending”: George E. Baker, ed., The Works of William H. Seward (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1884), 5: 307.

168 “carried before a legal tribunal”: Ibid., 5: 308.

168 had hoped to arrange an arbitration: Memorandum on the Trent Affair, December 1861, ALP LC.

168 Lyons even forgave the absence: Ferris, The Trent Affair, 196–98.

168 “a technical wrong”: David Donald, ed., Inside Lincoln’s Cabinet: The Civil War Diaries of Salmon P. Chase (New York: Longmans, Green, 1954), 55; see also Amanda Foreman, A World on Fire: Britain’s Role in the American Civil War (New York: Randon House, 2010), 194.

168 “bring law into contempt”: Adams, “Trent Affair,” 555 and 555 n. 3.

169 “every negro of every rebel”: John M. Palmer to Lyman Trumbull, December 28, 1861, ALP LC; see also Charles P. McIlvaine to AL, January 6, 1864, ALP LC; Crook, Diplomacy During the American Civil War, 58.

Chapter 6. Blood Is the Rich Dew of History

170 The shorter war is: Twenty-Seven Definitions and Elementary Positions Concerning the Law and Usages of War [1861], definition 19, folder 15, box 2, FLP JHU.

170 Fort Donelson: My account of the battle at Fort Donelson relies on OR, 1: 7, 174–78; Marion Morrison, A History of the Ninth Regiment, Illinois Volunteer Infantry (Monmouth, IL: J. S. Clark, 1864); Jack Hurst, Men of Fire: Grant, Forrest, and the Campaign That Decided the Civil War (New York: Basic Books, 2007); Kendall B. Gott, Where the South Lost the War (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003), 194–283; Benjamin Franklin Cooling, Forts Henry and Donelson: The Key to the Confederate Heartland (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987); James O. Churchill, A Letter Written During the Civil War, in Which Many St. Louis People Are Mentioned (St. Louis: The Writer, 1909); John H. Brinton, Personal Memoirs of John H. Brinton, Major and Surgeon U.S.V., 1861–1865 (New York: Neale Publishing, 1914), 91–92; Medical and Surgical History of the Rebellion (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1870), appendix 26–28; and Frederick H. Dyer, A Compendium of the War of Rebellion (Des Moines: Dyer Publishing Co., 1908).

172 the Naval Academy at Annapolis: FL to Charles Sumner, February 4, 1853, box 42, FLP HL.

172 a reputation for prodigious: Hamilton Lieber to Guido Norman Lieber, March 24, 1862, box 55, FLP HL.

172 tied a kerchief . . . smashed the elbow: FL to Charles Sumner, March 23, 1862, box 42, FLP HL.

172 “death storm”: J. S. Newberry, A Visit to Fort Donelson, Tenn. for the Relief of the Wounded of Feb’y 15, 1862: A Letter (New York: U.S. Sanitary Commission, 1862), 4.

172 wounded . . . lay dead: Medical and Surgical History of the Rebellion, appendix 28.

172 8th Illinois and 18th Illinois: Gott, Where the South Lost the War, 282–83.

172 201 . . . especially gruesome: Morrison, History of the Ninth Regiment, 17–24.

172 makeshift field hospital: Newberry, A Visit to Fort Donelson, 4–5.

173 catch the attention: Matilda Lieber to Hamilton Lieber, March 30, 1862, box 55, FLP HL.

173 “unconditional and immediate”: OR, 1: 7, 161.

173 “most disastrous”: Donald Stoker, The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 116.

173 decide the Civil War: Gott, Where the South Lost the War; Stoker, Grand Design, 116.

173 etch the date: Hamilton’s sword was put up for auction and sold by the auction house of James D. Julia in New Hampshire in 2005. See http://www.icollector.com/inscribed-us-model-1850-foot-officer-s-sword-with_i5323646, last visited November 24, 2011.

173 born in Berlin: The old but excellent biography of Lieber is Frank Freidel, Francis Lieber: Nineteenth-Century Liberal (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1947).

174 assassinating Napoleon: Ibid., 9.

174 “able to expel the French”: Quoted in ibid., 19.

174 “I suddenly experienced”: Thomas Sergent Perry, ed., Life and Letters of Francis Lieber (Boston: James R. Osgood, 1882), 16.

174 fight for Greek independence: Freidel, Francis Lieber, 30–33.

175 “if there should not be”: Perry, Life and Letters, 38.

175 “indelible horror”: Ibid., 12.

175 a bewildered boy: Ibid.

175 “tremendous uproar and carnage”: Ibid.

175 “over the mangled bodies”: Ibid.

175 “I told my comrade”: Ibid., 14.

175 stealing his watch: Ibid., 18.

175 Lieber was arrested and imprisoned: Freidel, Francis Lieber, 23–30, 42–45.

175 Matilda (“Matty”) Oppenheim: Matilda signed her letters as “Matty,” and Francis (whom she called “Frank” in correspondence) addressed her the same way. See, e.g., FL to Matilda Lieber, August 5, 1854, box 36, FLP HL.

176 President John Quincy Adams . . . William Marcy: See Freidel, Francis Lieber, 58.

176 President Jackson had a set: Perry, Life and Letters, 92.

176 Lincoln owned a set: Joshua Wolf Schenk, Lincoln’s Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 30; Freidel, Francis Lieber, 81 n. 44.

176 a desultory teacher: On Lieber as a teacher, see the student notes of Robert Bage Canfield from 1861 (Robert Bage Canfield Manuscripts, 1858–1862, Rare Books Room, Butler Library, Columbia University), as well as the lecture notes that Lieber made for himself in the margins of books he seems simply to have read out at great length in class, punctuated by lengthy digressions—see, e.g., Lieber’s copy of [Thomas Arnold?], History of Rome (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea, & Blanchard, 1837), 195–97, in the Judge Advocate School Lieber Collection, Federal Research Division, LC.

176 spoke in strange and idiosyncratic formulations: Freidel, Francis Lieber, 199.

177 “for want of a rapid”: Ibid., 140.

177 “most fertile”: David Donald, Charles Sumner and the Coming of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960), 81.

177 “individual” . . . “lost more and more in the mass”: “Army,” in Encyclopaedia Americana, ed. Francis Lieber (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea, & Blanchard, 1829), 1: 380.

177 “by persons who have”: Francis Lieber, Manual of Political Ethics (Boston: Little, Brown, 1838–39), 2: 633.

177 “energy and independence” . . . “moral electricity”: Ibid., 2: 632.

177 “choicest pages”: Ibid., 2: 633.

177 “Every single thread”: Law and Usages of War, No. II, 29 October 1861 [Notebook No. II], folder 16, box 2, FLP JHU.

177 “Blood” . . . “vital juice”: FL to Fanny Longfellow, March 15, 1844, quoted in James F. Childress, “Francis Lieber’s Interpretation of the Laws of War: General Orders No. 100 in the Context of His Life and Thought,” American Journal of Jurisprudence21 (1976): 34, 44 n. 33.

178 “best and purest” . . . “degrading submissiveness”: Lieber, Manual of Political Ethics, 2: 646.

178 “the nobleness of human nature” . . . “freedom of his children”: Ibid., 2: 633.

178 “the greatest good”: Ibid., 2: 667.

178 “that lively feeling”: Ibid., 2: 647.

178 “not demoralizing”: Ibid., 2: 645.

178 were morally responsible for their actions: FL to Charles Sumner, April 1, 1841, May 20, 1841, and June 18, 1841, box 40, FLP HL; also FL to Senator Rufus Choate, December 25, 1841, in Perry, Life and Letters, 161.

178 would have acquitted McLeod: FL to Charles Sumner, May 20, 1841, box 40, FLP HL.

179 “the worst advised”: Perry, Life and Letters, 198.

179 “elevated intention”: The quotation comes from the marginalia on the cover of Lieber’s copy of Sumner’s Oration at Union College (July 25, 1848), FLP JHU.

179 leaf from the field at Waterloo: ML to Martin Russell Thayer, October, 1872, box 55, FLP HL.

179 march of the cadets: Perry, Life and Letters, 129.

179 “spheres of action”: Freidel, Francis Lieber, 198.

179 “shaping history in the field”: Perry, Life and Letters, 209–10.

179 “I was born for action”: Ibid.

179 “Would to God”: FL to Henry Halleck, February 8, 1862, box 27, FLP HL.

179 “Oh! my poor life”: Freidel, Francis Lieber, 122.

180 “a Slave State!”: Perry, Life and Letters, 104.

180 enlisted in Hampton’s Legion: Freidel, Francis Lieber, 136 n. 38 & 306.

180 “Behold in me”: Childress, “Francis Lieber’s Interpretation,” 43.

180 “Strike, strike”: FL to Charles Sumner, January 20, 1865, box 44, FLP HL.

180 “sledgehammer”: FL to Charles Sumner, February 13, 1865, box 45, FLP HL.

180 “a death blow”: Edward Bates to FL, September 2 and 3, 1862, box 2, FLP HL.

180 “Blow upon Blow”: FL to Alexander Dallas Bache, May 3, 1862, box 31, RC HL.

180 “Hard, Harder”: FL to Alexander Dallas Bache, May 6, 1862, box 31, RC HL.

180 “drive back”: Edward Bates to FL, September 2 and 3, 1862, box 2, FLP HL.

180 arm-and-hammer sketch: E.g., FL to Alexander Dallas Bache, May 12, 1862, box 31, RC HL.

180 “I intended to do so”: FL to Matilda Lieber, July 26, 1861, box 36, FLP HL.

181 “won’t you give us at least”: Freidel, Francis Lieber, 308.

181 “a peculiarly truthful”: FL to Henry Boynton Smith, August 15, 1861, box 39, FLP HL.

181 “war does not absolve us”: Lieber, Manual of Political Ethics, 2: 658.

181 “guided by no false sentimentality”: Lieber, “The Disposal of Prisoners,” New York Times, August 19, 1861.

181 around 100 people: FL to Henry Halleck, October 28, 1863, box 28, FLP HL.

181 an epic tour: Lieber’s lecture notes are available in box 2, folders 15–18, FLP JH.

181 carried in the New York Times and reprinted: E.g., “Lecture by Dr. Francis Lieber on the Laws and Usages of War—No. 1,” New York Times, October 27, 1861; see also [clipping], New York Evening Post, in box 2, folder 18, FLP JH.

182 “Father Namby Pamby”: FL to Henry Halleck, 10/3/1863, box 28, FLP HL. “Namby pamby” was Lieber’s favorite insult. See the interleafed passages in his copy of his own Manual of Political Ethics, 2: 664–65, box 5, FLP JHU.

182 “a period of peculiar martial character”: Law and Usages of War, No. I, 21 October 1861, folder 16, box 2, FLP JHU. All quotations from the lecture are from this source.

183 “a rule of action”: Law and Usages of War, No. III, 3 December 1861 [Notebook No. III], folder 16, box 2, FLP JHU.

183 “greater than necessary”: Law and Usages of War, No. IV, 17 December 1861 [Notebook No. IV], folder 16, box 2, FLP JHU.

183 “unnecessary infliction of pain”: Law and Usages of War, No. III.

183 “something fiendish” . . . “lawful to resort”: Law and Usages of War, No. IV.

184 “No doubt” . . . “one of our own?”: Ibid.

184 “those arms that do” . . . “peace and civilization”: Ibid.

184 “corte e grosse”: Felix Gilbert, “Machiavelli: The Renaissance of the Art of War,” in Peter Paret, ed. Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 11, 24 n. 26.

184 “kurz und vives”: Jay Luvass, ed., Frederick the Great on the Art of War (New York: Free Press, 1966), 141.

184 “but to make the calamity”: Montague Bernard, “The Growth of Laws and Usages of War,” in Oxford Essays (London: Parker, 1856), 134–35.

184 Carl von Clausewitz: For Clausewitz’s life, I have relied on the introductions in editors Michael Howard & Peter Paret’s translation of Clausewitz’s On War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976); Peter Paret, The Cognitive Challenge of War: Prussia, 1806 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009); Peter Paret, Understanding War: Essays on Clausewitz and the History of Military Power (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992); Peter Paret, Clausewitz and the State (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976); and Roger Parkinson, Clausewitz: A Biography (New York: Stein & Day, 1971).

185 “minutiae of service” . . . “fighting a battle”: Paret, Cognitive Challenge, 140.

185 “hardly worth mentioning”: Clausewitz, On War, 75.

185 “in the name of humanity” . . . “hack off our arms”: Ibid., 260.

185 100 years after the Civil War: Beatrice Heuser, Reading Clausewitz (London: Pimlico, 2002), 17; see also Christopher Bassford, Clausewitz in English: The Reception of Clausewitz in Britain and America, 1815–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), which notes that Clausewitz had some readers far earlier.

185 “the continuation of politics”: Clausewitz, On War, 7, 69 (“war is nothing but a continuation of policy with other means”); 605 (“war is simply a continuation of political intercourse, with the addition of other means”).

186 “an act of force”: Ibid., 75.

186 Clausewitz’s definition: Lieber, Manual of Political Ethics, 2: 631.

186 “to compel him to peace” . . . “use all means”: Ibid., 2: 660 n. 3.

186 “morality floats”: Law and Usages of War, No. IV.

186 eschewed the quintessential strategy: One twenty-first-century Clausewitz student puts it this way: “If the ends don’t justify the means, I’d like to know what in the hell does!” See Phillip Bobbitt, Terror and Consent: The Wars for the 21st Century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 351.

186 They rejoiced at the Union victory: FL to Henry Halleck, February 8, 1862, box 27, FLP HL.

186 bad tidings: FL to Halleck, February 19, 1862, box 27, FLP HL.

187 sought out his wounded son: Oliver Wendell Holmes, “My Hunt After the Captain,” Atlantic Monthly 10 (1862): 738–64; Stephen M. Frank, “Rendering Aid and Comfort: Images of Fatherhood in the Letters of Civil War Soldiers from Massachusetts and Michigan,” Journal of Social History 21, no. 1 (1992): 15–17; Louis Menand, The Metaphysical Club (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2001), 41.

187 some 16,367 . . . half a million: John Whiteclay Chambers et al., eds., The Oxford Companion to American Military History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 50.

187 Union wounded: Medical and Surgical History of the Rebellion, appendix 27.

187 he could not find him . . . “I knew war as [a] soldier”: FL to Charles Sumner, March 23, 1862, box 42, FLP HL.

187 had dined regularly: Henry Halleck to FL, February 3, 1862, box 9, FLP HL; FL to Henry Halleck, February 7, 1862, box 27, FLP HL.

188 powerfully impressed: Henry Halleck to FL, February 3, 1862, box 9, FLP HL; Henry W. Halleck, Elements of Military Art and Science: Or, Course of Instruction in Strategy, Fortification, Tactics of Battles, Etc. (New York: D. Appleton, 1862), 8–34, esp. 23–34.

188 who directed Lieber: Matilda Lieber to Guido Norman Lieber, February 27, 1862, box 55, FLP HL.

188 “war is not” . . . “certain of success”: Halleck, Elements of Military Art, 145.

188 “been rendered clear”: Henry W. Halleck, International Law; Or, Rules Regulating the Intercourse of States in Peace and War (New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1861), 30.

188 “bound by rules”: Halleck, Elements of Military Art, 145.

188 Instead, bands of irregular soldiers: See Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri During the American Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Mark E. Neely, Jr., The Civil War and the Limits of Destruction(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007).

189 “all fastidious notions”: Daniel E. Sutherland, ed., A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 93.

190 “bands of partisan rangers”: OR, series 4, 1: 1094–95.

190 Arkansas: Robert R. Mackey, The Uncivil War: Irregular Warfare in the Upper South, 1861–1865 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004), 30.

190 Missouri: Fellman, Inside War, 103.

190 reluctant to adopt: Sutherland, Savage Conflict, 53–54; Donald E. Sutherland. “Guerrilla Warfare, Democracy, and the Fate of the Confederacy,” Journal of Southern History 68 (2002): 275–77.

190 “might lay waste to Philadelphia”: Sutherland, Savage Conflict, 94.

190 “plundering, devouring”: Mackey, Uncivil War, 39–40.

190 “hurricane violence”: Silvana R. Siddali, ed., Missouri’s War: The Civil War in Documents (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2009), 82.

191 “principal occupation”: OR, series 1, 8: 641–42.

191 Randolph was gone: Brooks D. Simpson & Jean V. Berlin, eds., Sherman’s Civil War: Selected Correspondence of William T. Sherman, 1860–1865 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 306; see also Mark Grimsley, The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy Toward Southern Civilians, 1861–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 114–17.

191 “all persons who shall be taken with arms”: OR, series 1, 3: 466–67.

191 “not commissioned or enlisted”: Sutherland, Savage Conflict, 59.

191 “duly enrolled” . . . “exempt them from punishment”: OR, series 1, 8: 822.

191 “expressly authorized”: William Oke Manning, Commentaries on the Law of Nations (London: S. Sweet, 1839), 153.

191 Martens had said the same: G. F. von Martens, Summary of the Law of Nations: Founded on the Treaties and Customs of the Modern Nations of Europe, trans. William Cobbett (London: William Cobbett, 1795), bk 3, ch. 3, §6, pp. 284–85.

191 “a commission from their sovereign”: Vattel, Law of Nations, bk 3, ch. 15, §226, p. 400.

192 “without a sanction from their governments”: Theodore D. Woolsey, Introduction to the Study of International Law, Designed as an Aid in Teaching, and in Historical Studies (Boston: J. Munroe, 1860), 280.

192 “partizan and guerrilla troops”: Halleck, International Law, 386.

192 “You must be aware”: Sutherland, Savage Conflict, 64.

192 “specially appointed”: Ibid., 63–64.

192 “recognized by me”: Mackey, Uncivil War, 33.

192 “We cannot be expected”: OR, series 1, 13: 726–28.

192–93 “acting under the authority”: OR, series 2, 3: 885.

193 fiercely defended the partisan rangers: OR, series 2, 4: 907; Siddali, Missouri’s War, 147–48.

193 their oldest son: FL to Alexander Dallas Bache, June 18, 1862, box 32, Bache Correspondence, Rhees Collection, HL.

193 “has thus knocked”: FL to Henry Halleck, August 9, 1862, box 27, FLP HL.

193 Behind the scenes in 1861: Edward Bates to FL, August 13, 1861, December 19, 1861, May 6, 1862, May 9, 1862, and June 24, 1862, all in box 2, FLP HL; FL to Henry Halleck, January 30, 1862, box 27, FLP HL.

193 call on Lieber to solicit: Edward Bates to FL, June 10, 1862, box 2, FLP HL; FL to Matilda Lieber, August 7, 1862, box 36, FLP HL. Stanton requested, and Lieber wrote, a memorandum on the “military use of colored persons.” FL to Henry Halleck, August 10, 1862, box 27, FLP HL.

193 a formal memorandum: FL to Henry Halleck, August 9, 1862, box 27, FLP HL.

193 “I highly approve”: Henry Halleck to FL, August 20, 1862, box 9, FLP HL.

194 “self-constituted”: Lieber, Guerrilla Parties, 8.

194 “maintained in good faith”: Ibid., 17.

194 verbose and rambling: E.g., David Glazier, “Ignorance Is Not Bliss: The Law of Belligerent Occupation and the U.S. Invasion of Iraq,” Rutgers Law Review 58 (2005): 154–55; Fellman, Inside War, 84.

194 Clausewitz had described: Clausewitz, On War, 76.

195 “Whether the guerrillas”: William T. Sherman to Maj.-Gen. Thomas C. Hindman (C.S.A.), September 1862, in Mackey, Uncivil War, 35.

195 summary field executions: OR, series 1, 17: 97; OR, series 2, 4: 86–87; OR, series 2, 5: 411; Fellman, Inside War, 86–87; Clay Mountcastle, Punitive War: Confederate Guerrillas and Union Reprisals (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009), 39; Siddali, Missouri’s War, 137–38.

195 “The most disciplined soldiers”: Lieber, Guerrilla Parties, 17.

195 death spiral of retaliation: FL to Henry Halleck, June 2, 1863, box 27, FLP HL.

196 precisely to avoid: Robert R. Mackey, “Bushwackers, Provosts, and Tories: The Guerrilla War in Arkansas,” in Daniel E. Sutherland, ed., Guerrillas, Unionists, and Violence on the Confederate Homefront (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas, 1999), 176–77.

196 tablet on the mantelpiece: Description of Francis Lieber’s Library (n.d.), box 55, FLP HL.

196 “war in earnest”: Clausewitz, On War, trans. J. J. Graham (London: N. Trubner, 1873), 149.

196 “Blood”: Childress, “Francis Lieber’s Interpretation,” 44.

Chapter 7. Act of Justice

197 The extraordinary spectacle: Daniel Ruggles to Benjamin Franklin Butler, July 15, 1862, OR, series 1, 15: 520.

197 a nineteenth-century celebrity: Allan Nevins, Frémont: Pathmarker of the West (New York: D. Appleton Co., 1939).

198 “Their slaves, if any they have”: OR, series 2, 3: 467.

198 was inspiring outright terror: Joseph Holt to AL, September 12, 1861, ALP LC.

198 As protests from Kentucky: Joshua Speed to AL, September 1, 1861, ALP LC; Green Adams and James Speed to AL, September 2, 1861, ALP LC.

198 Missouri: AL to David Hunter, September 9, 1861, ALP LC; Montgomery Blair to AL, September 14, 1861, ALP LC.

198 “liberating [the] slaves”: Basler, 4: 506.

198 “nearly the same as”: Ibid., 4: 532.

198 “as long as the necessity lasts” . . . “their permanent future condition”: Ibid., 4: 531.

199 “private property on land”: H. W. Halleck, International Law, or, Rules Regulating the Intercourse of States in Peace and War (San Francisco: H. H. Bancroft & Co., 1861).

199 Roger Taney had endorsed: See United States v. Percheman, 32 U.S. 51, 65 (1833).

199 Henry Wheaton: Henry Wheaton, Elements of International Law: With a Sketch of the History of the Science (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1836), 252–54.

199 “The just fame”: “The Rightful Power of Congress to Confiscate and Emancipate,” Monthly Law Reporter 24 (1862): 469, 480.

199 “double character”: Thomas R. R. Cobb, An Inquiry into the Law of Negro Slavery in the United States of America (Philadelphia: T. & J. W. Johnson & Co., 1858), 83.

200 “the constant terrors”: “Histoire de l’Esclavage dans l’Antiquité,” North American Review 91 (July 1860): 90, 94.

200 slaves had massacred: C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1963), 88–89. For a brilliant account of the memory of Haiti during the Civil War, see Matthew J. Clavin,Toussaint Louverture and the American Civil War: The Promise and Peril of a Second Haitian Revolution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010).

200 any “point of our immense coast”: George Mifflin Dallas, A Series of Letters from London Written During the Years 1856, ’57, ’58, ’59, and ’60 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1869), 106.

200 “You cannot fight!”: “Our Women in the War.” The Lives They Lived; The Deaths They Died. From the Weekly News and Courier, Charleston, S.C. (Charleston: News & Courier Book Presses, 1885), 340.

200 a “private war”: Lysander Spooner, A Plan for the Abolition of Slavery, and to the Non-Slaveholders of the South (New York: Lysander Spooner, 1858).

200 at the request of John Brown: Herbert Aptheker, “Militant Abolitionism,” Journal of Negro History 26, no. 4 (October 1941): 438, 468.

201 “consequences attendant on”: Joel Parker, The Character of the Rebellion and the Conduct of the War (Cambridge: Welch, Bigelow & Co., 1862), 41.

201 Buchanan blamed abolitionists: Richardson, 5: 627.

201 South Carolina listed northern incitement: Journal of the Convention of the People of South Carolina, Held in 1860, 1861, and 1862 (Columbia: R. W. Gibbes, 1862), 465.

201 a “servile insurrection”: Thomas Jackson Arnold, ed., Early Life and Letters of General Thomas J. Jackson, “Stonewall” Jackson (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1916), 294.

201 whispered to one another: C. Vann Woodward, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981), 43–44.

201 Stories of secret caches: Susan Dallas, ed., Diary of George Mifflin Dallas, While United States Minister to Russia 1837 to 1839, and to England 1856 to 1861 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1892), 431–32.

201 Suspicious arson in Texas: See Allen C. Guelzo, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004), 17.

201 slave conspiracy planned for March 4: Armstead L. Robinson, “In the Shadow of Old John Brown: Insurrection Anxiety and Confederate Mobilization, 1861–1863,” Journal of Negro History 65, no. 4 (Autumn 1980): 279, 287–88.

201 “an insurrection” . . . the countryside near Huntsville, Alabama: Robinson, “In the Shadow of Old John Brown,” 288.

201 “whole families”: “Imminent Peril of a Slave Insurrection [Correspondence of the New York Tribune],” Liberator, August 16, 1861, p. 130.

201 letters poured into the offices: Robinson, “In the Shadow of Old John Brown,” 288.

201 In the War of 1812: See “Negro Stealing,” Palladium of Liberty (Fauquier County, VA), January 8, 1814; “Norfolk Public Ledger,” Daily National Intelligencer (Washington, DC), April 12, 1815; “Editorial,” Raleigh Register, April 7, 1815.

201 “in this, as in all other instances”: “Mobile Register [excerpt],” Liberator, June 14, 1861, p. 1.

202 Southern state governors . . . 200,000 Confederate troops: Robinson, “In the Shadow of Old John Brown,” 283–88.

202 “suppress servile insurrection”: OR, series 1, 2: 661–62.

202 George Cadwalader of Philadelphia: See “Speech of Wendell Phillips, Esq., at the Anti-Slavery Celebration at Framingham, July 4, 1861,” Liberator, July 12, 1861.

202 Union forces in western Virginia: Stephen W. Sears, George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1988), 79.

202 the assistance of his Massachusetts forces: OR, series 2, 1: 567.

202 “contraband of war”: Adam Goodheart, 1861: Civil War Awakening (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011), 295–347.

202 better suited to pistols: Kate Masur, “ ‘A Rare Phenomenon of Philological Vegetation’: The Word Contraband and the Meanings of Emancipation in the United States,” Journal of American History 93 (March 2007): 1050, 1066.

202 Butler was no abolitionist: For Butler’s life and career, see Hans L. Trefousse, Benjamin Butler: The South Called Him Beast! (New York: Twayne, 1957).

202 at New Orleans, he would turn slaves away: OR, series 1, 15: 439–40.

203 Angry abolitionists: “Repressing Slave Insurrections,” Liberator, May 17, 1861, p. 79.

203 “one of the inherent weaknesses”: “The Governor of Massachusetts on Slave Insurrections,” Lloyd’s Weekly Newspaper (London), June 2, 1861.

203 “In what manner” . . . “honorable warfare”: “Interesting Correspondence: Repressing Slave Insurrections,” New York Times, May 16, 1861.

204 Sir Guy Carleton had: Simon Schama, Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American Revolution (New York: Ecco, 2006), 151.

204 Adams rediscovered his antislavery commitments: William Lee Miller, Arguing About Slavery: The Great Battle in the United States Congress (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996), 186–88; William Jerry MacLean, “Othello Scorned: The Racial Thought of John Quincy Adams,” Journal of the Early Republic 4, no. 2 (1984): 143–60.

204 Contesting the so-called gag rule: Cong. Globe, 24th Cong., 1st sess., appendix 433–36.

204 “laws and municipal institutions” . . . “slavery and emancipation”: Worthington Chauncey Ford & Charles Francis Adams, Jr., John Quincy Adams: His Connection with the Monroe Doctrine (1843) and with Emancipation Under Martial Law (1819–1842)(Cambridge: J. Wilson & Son, 1902), 75–77.

204 “was fully warranted” . . . “why may he not negroes?”: Orville H. Browning to AL, September 30, 1861, ALP LC.

205 from the day Fort Sumter was shelled: David Donald, Charles Sumner and the Coming of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960), 388.

205 Sumner became convinced: Charles Sumner, “Emancipation Our Best Weapon,” in The Works of Charles Sumner (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1870–83), 6: 31.

205 Lincoln had abandoned: Guelzo, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, 57.

205 an October speech: Sumner, “Emancipation Our Best Weapon,” 1–64.

205 “horrid policy”: quoted in ibid., 42.

205 “the slave property of rebels”: “The News,” Pacific Commercial Advertiser (Honolulu), March 27, 1862, p. 2 (quoting New York Journal of Commerce).

205 “nothing is truer”: “The Lounger,” Harper’s Weekly, October 19, 1861, pp. 658–59.

205 “let slavery feel”: “Just and Sound,” Independent, December 12, 1861, p. 4 (quoting Christian Intelligencer).

205 defending a broad war power: William Whiting, The War Powers of the President and the Legislative Powers of Congress in Relation to Rebellion, Treason and Slavery (Boston: J. L. Shorey, 1862).

205 forty-three separate printings: Mark E. Neely, Jr., Lincoln and the Triumph of the Nation: Constitutional Conflict in the American Civil War (Chapel Hill: University at North Carolina Press, 2012), 84.

205 “like the letting loose”: Guelzo, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, 48.

206 “wild and lawless”: Sumner, “Emancipation Our Best Weapon,” 27.

206 “Servile insurrections”: “Selections,” Liberator, December 7, 1860, p. 1.

206 “What are these madmen”: Harriet Beecher Stowe, “The President’s Message,” Independent, December 20, 1860, p. 1.

206 “Experiments of emancipation” . . . “must stand aghast!”: Charles Francis Adams, Jr., “Martial Law or Competition?” Independent, October 24, 1861, p. 1.

206 Lincoln cast a losing vote: Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2010), 59–60. Don Fehrenbacher’s excellent posthumous book uncharacteristically gets this episode in Lincoln’s career wrong. See Don E. Fehrenbacher & Ward M. McAfee, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 369 n. 40.

206 “Every civilized nation”: Foner, Fiery Trial, 60.

207 from the day of his election: Anonymous to AL, January 14, 1861, ALP LC; The Count Johannes [George Jones] to AL, April 28, 1861, ALP LC; James Hamilton to AL, May 3, 1861, ALP LC.

207 Bates warned Lincoln repeatedly: Edward Bates, “Memorandum, April 15, 1861,” ALP LC; Howard K. Beale, ed., The Diary of Edward Bates, 1859–1866 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1933), 179; Gideon Welles, Lincoln and Seward: Remarks Upon the Memorial Address of Chas. Francis Adams on the Late Wm. H. Seward (New York: Sheldon, 1874), 211–12.

207 “All of us who live”: Joshua Speed to AL, September 1, 1861, ALP LC.

207 He quietly approved Butler’s: Foner, Fiery Trial, 171.

207 And when his beleaguered: Ibid., 187–88.

207 “Seven negroes”: Ibid., 9.

207 Lincoln found himself wondering: Guelzo, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, 254–57.

207–208 “military necessity” . . . “forever free”: OR, series 3, 2: 48.

208 “Whether at any time”: Basler, 5: 222.

208 “Rending or wrecking”: Ibid., 5: 223.

208 on the peninsula between the Rappahannock: On the Peninsula Campaign, see James M. McPherson, The Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 426–90.

209 “I have never written you”: Basler, 5: 185.

209 “Our left is now”: George B. McClellan to Edwin M. Stanton, June 2, 1862, in Stephen W. Sears, ed., The Civil War Correspondence of George B. McClellan: Selected Correspondence, 1860–1865 (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1989), 286.

209 “We ought instead of retreating”: McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 470.

209 warfare as a kind of chess match: T. Harry Williams, McClellan, Sherman, and Grant (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1962), 23.

210 “by pure military skill” . . . “brightest chapters”: George B. McClellan to Ambrose Burnside, May 21, 1862, in Sears, ed., Civil War Correspondence, 269.

210 “tired of the sickening sight”: Williams, McClellan, Sherman and Grant, 24.

210 “I confess”: Sears, McClellan: The Young Napoleon, 116.

210 “an iron hand”: Ibid., 79.

210 “sudden and general emancipation”: George B. McClellan, McClellan’s Own Story: The War for the Union, the Soldiers Who Fought It, the Civilians Who Directed It, and His Relations to Them (New York: Charles L. Webster & Co., 1887), 33.

210 “who assured the slaveholders”: “Gerrit Smith on McClellan’s Nomination and Acceptance,” Liberator, September 23, 1864, p. 155.

210–11 “should be conducted” . . . “rapidly disintegrate our present armies”: OR, series I, 11 (part 1): 73–74.

211 “come to the conclusion”: Gideon Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy Under Lincoln and Johnson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911), 1: 70–71.

211–12 “as a fit and necessary” . . . “be free”: Basler, 5: 336–37.

212 “The will of God” . . . “human instrumentalities”: Ibid., 5: 403–04.

213 “I am almost ready”: Ibid., 5: 404.

213 “certain that they represent” . . . “to favor their side”: Ibid., 5: 420.

213 “Good men” . . . facts, principles, and arguments”: Ibid., 5: 421.

213 “Do not misunderstand me”: Ibid., 5: 425.

214 “depredation and massacre” . . . “arm the slaves”: John H. Niven, The Salmon P. Chase Papers: Journals, 1829–1872 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1993–), 1: 351; also David Donald, ed., Inside Lincoln’s Cabinet: The Civil War Diaries of Salmon P. Chase (New York: Longmans, Green, 1954), 99.

214 Bates had long worried: Gideon Welles, Lincoln and Seward: Remarks Upon the Memorial Address of Chas. Francis Adams on the Late Wm. H. Seward (New York: Sheldon, 1874), 211; Gideon Welles, “The History of Emancipation,” Galaxy 14, no. 6 (1872): 838, 844.

214 “stretching forth its hands” . . . “our last shriek”: F. B. Carpenter, Six Months at the White House with Abraham Lincoln: The Story of a Picture (New York: Hurd & Houghton, 1866), 20–22. Seward’s comments echoed Psalm 68:31 (“Princes shall come out of Egypt; Ethiopia shall soon stretch out her hands unto God”).

215 “gave us the victory” . . . “in favor of the slaves”: Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 1: 143.

215 “forever free” . . . “actual freedom”: Basler, 5: 434.

215 “We say we are for” . . . “God must forever bless”: Ibid., 5: 537.

215 “The dogmas” . . . “save our country”: Ibid., 5: 537.

216 “inflict on the non-combatant population”: OR, series 4, 2: 211.

216 “not only his approval”: OR, series 1, 15: 907.

216 “seeking to bring upon us”: Francis Richard Lubbock, Six Decades in Texas: or Memoirs of Francis Richard Lubbock, Governor of Texas in War Time, 1861–1863 (Austin, TX: Ben C. Jones & Co., 1900), 476.

216 “that our homes should be burned”: Kate Mason Rowland and Agnes E. Croxall, eds., The Journal of Julia LeGrand, New Orleans 1862–1863 (Richmond, VA: Everett Waddey Co., 1911), 132.

216 “an invitation to servile war”: “Domestic Intelligence,” Harper’s Weekly, October 18, 1862, p. 659.

216 “all rules of civilized warfare” . . . “suffer death”: “The Rebel Congress on the Emancipation Proclamation—The Rules of Civilized Warfare to Be Ignored,” Daily Evening Bulletin (San Francisco), October 29, 1862.

216 “inconsistent with the spirit”: OR, series 2, 5: 940–41.

216 “fight for such an accursed doctrine”: Sears, ed., Civil War Correspondence, 481.

216 Louisville Journal observed angrily: Weekly Mountain Democrat (Placerville, CA), January 17, 1863 (quoting the Louisville Journal).

216 “a servile war”: Thomas M. Monroe, “Slavery: Considered in Its Moral and Social Aspects,” Dubuque Herald, March 19, 1863.

216 “the lusts of freed negroes”: Allen C. Guelzo, “Defending Emancipation: Abraham Lincoln and the Conkling Letter, 1863,” Civil War History 48, no. 4 (2002): 313, 320.

216 “scenes of bloodshed”: Benjamin R. Curtis, Executive Power (Boston: Little, Brown, 1862), 13.

217 Joel Parker: Guelzo, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, 211.

217 the salons of Britain and France: “Clip from London Paper,” Liberator, November 21, 1862; “Louis Napoleon’s Foreign Policy,” Independent, December 11, 1862, p. 4.

217 “inviting the negroes”: Weekly Mountain Democrat (Placerville, CA), November 29, 1862.

217 “under no circumstances”: Report of the Secretary of War, House Exec. Doc. no. 1, 37th Cong., 3d sess., in Executive Documents Printed by Order of the House of Representatives During the Third Session of the Thirty-Seventh Congress (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1863), 4: 19.

217 “are, and henceforward” . . . “for reasonable wages”: Basler, 6: 29–30.

217 “No servile insurrection”: Ibid., 7: 50.

218 “as a fit and necessary” . . . “Almighty God”: Ibid., 6: 29–30.

218 “merely a war measure”: John G. Whittier, Letters of Lydia Maria Child (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1883), 171.

218 “all the moral grandeur”: Richard Hofstadter, The American Political Tradition and the Men Who Made It (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948), 149.

219 “vast and momentous”: Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 70.

Chapter 8. To Save the Country

220 “To save the country”: Instructions, art. 5.

220 As the moon sank low: Stephen V. Ash, Firebrand of Liberty: The Story of Two Black Regiments That Changed the Course of the Civil War (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2008), 105–09.

220 “not the phantom”: Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Army Life in a Black Regiment (Boston: Fields, Osgood, & Co., 1870), 99.

221 admirer of John Brown: Ibid., 4.

221 Kansas jayhawker: Mary Thacher Higginson, Letters and Journals of Thomas Wentworth Higginson, 1846–1906 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1921), 186. See also Keith Wilson, “In the Shadow of John Brown: The Military Service of Colonels Thomas Higginson, James Montgomery, and Robert Shaw in the Department of the South,” in John David Smith, ed., Black Soldiers in Blue: African-American Troops in the Civil War Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 306.

221 arming Florida’s freedmen: OR, series 1, 14: 226.

221 stunned residents: Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, March 27, 1863.

221 “in mortal dread”: “Interesting from Port Royal,” New York Times, March 22, 1863.

221 “a great volcano”: Higginson, Army Life, 99.

221–22 “wretched business” . . . “force in the field”: “The Higginson Expeditions,” Newark Advocate (Newark, OH), March 27, 1863 (reprinted from the New York World).

222 Stanton . . . in August: Higginson, 277–80.

222 “consistent with the usages”: Ibid., 99.

222 “partisan warfare”: Ibid., 167.

222 “have none but civilized warfare”: Higgison, Letters and Journals, 207.

222 Even before the announcement: E.g., OR, series 2, 3: 898–99.

222 made execution or re-enslavement: OR, series 2, 5: 940–41.

222 “Dere’s no flags” . . . “he fight in earnest”: Higginson, Army Life, 151.

222 with such speed and skill: OR, series 1, 13: 227.

222 “something far different”: Boston Daily Advertiser, March 31, 1863.

223 The Confederacy had no need: On the Confederacy’s approach to law of war questions, see Daniel W. Hamilton, The Limits of Sovereignty: Property Confiscation in the Union and the Confederacy During the Civil War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007); Stephen C. Neff, Justice in Blue and Gray: A Legal History of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010); and William Morrison Robinson, Justice in Grey: A History of the Judicial System of the Confederate States of America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941), 359–405.

223 “the usages of civilized warfare”: Sequestration Act Passed by the Congress of the Confederate States, Approved August 30, 1861 (Richmond, VA: Tyler, Wise, & Allegre, Printers, 1861), 3; James D. Richardson, ed., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Confederacy (Nashville, TN: United States Publishing Co., 1905), 1: 104–05 (“usages of civilized nations”).

223 championed broad rights for neutral shipping: Montague Bernard, A Historical Account of the Neutrality of Great Britain During the American Civil War (London: Longmans, Green, Reader & Dyer, 1870), 101; Richardson, ed., Messages and Papers of the Confederacy, 1: 104–12.

223 an unlawful paper blockade: “Blockade,” Daily Picayune (New Orleans), July 14, 1861, 2.

223 Declaration of Paris: Bernard, Historical Account, 185.

223 gleefully mocked: Richardson, Messages and Papers of the Confederacy, 1: 281.

224 “departed from the usages”: Sequestration Act, 3.

224 retaliatory Sequestration Act: Hamilton, Limits of Sovereignty, 89–139.

224 “the desire of this Government”: Richardson, Messages and Papers of the Confederacy, 2: 115–16.

224 deny prisoner of war status: OR, series 2, 3: 898–99.

224 “be no longer held and treated”: OR, series 1, 14: 599.

224 bills that would have treated: Journal of the Congress of the Confederate States of America, 1861–1865 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1905), 5: 535–49; “The Rebel Congress on the Emancipation Proclamation,” Daily Evening Bulletin(San Francisco), October 29, 1862.

224 “negro slaves”: OR, series 2, 5: 795–97.

225 John Stuart Mill had forcefully observed: John M. Robson, ed., Collected Works of John Stuart Mill (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1963–91), 21: 118.

225 not the slaves but the slaveholders: J. E. Cairnes, The Slave Power: Its Character, Career, and Probable Designs (New York: Carleton, 1862), 151–54.

225 No state founded on: Basler, 6: 176–77.

226 “It is not the North that is against you”: Thomas Sergeant Perry, Life and Letters of Francis Lieber (Boston: J. R. Osgood & Co., 1882), 235.

226 polygamy and concubinage: Ibid., 243.

226 “The whole movement of history”: Ibid., 267.

226 spent $1,150 on two slaves: Hartmut Keil, “Francis Lieber’s Attitudes on Race, Slavery, and Abolition,” Journal of American Ethnic History 28, no. 1 (2008): 13.

226 “good looks”: Ibid.

226 carefully checking their teeth: Ibid., 21.

226 “fully one thousand dollars”: Frank Freidel, Francis Lieber: Nineteenth-Century Liberal (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1947), 236.

227 Lieber excused his ownership: Keil, “Francis Lieber’s Attitudes,” 13–14.

227 defended southern slaveowners’ treatment: FL to Charles Sumner, October 27, 1835, box 40, FLP HL.

227 “a proslavery man”: Perry, Life and Letters, 297.

227 an international congress of jurists: FL to Charles Sumner, December 27, 1861, in ibid., 324–25.

227 “a little book”: FL to Charles Sumner, August 19, 1861, box 42, FLP HL.

227 Lieber took up the subject: “The Disposal of Prisoners,” New York Times, August 19, 1861.

227 a creature of the laws: Law and Usages of War, No. VIII, 6 February 1862 [Notebook No. 8], folder 16, box 2, FLP JHU.

227 “not exist in conquered Territories”: Perry, Life and Letters, 250.

227 Lieber visited Fort Monroe: Matthew J. Mancini, “Francis Lieber, Slavery, and the ‘Genesis’ of the Laws of War,” Journal of Southern History 77, no. 2 (2011): 333.

227 “contraband” . . . “amazingly”: Francis Lieber to Benson J. Lossing, January 21, 1866, box 2, FLP LC.

227–28 “must be, and are” . . . “difference of skin”: FL to Charles Sumner, December 19, 1861, box 42, FLP HL.

228 “step back and fight”: Francis Lieber to Benson J. Lossing, January 21, 1866, box 2, FLP LC.

228 Following Montesquieu and Blackstone: Law and Usages of War, No. VII, 4 February 1862 [Notebook No. 7], folder 16, box 2, FLP JHU.

228 “peculiar” laws: Law and Usages of War, No. VIII, February 6, 1862 [Notebook No. 8], folder 16, box 2, FLP JHU.

228 collecting notes for his friend: FL to Charles Sumner, September 6, 1862, box 42, FLP HL.

228 “men stand opposed” . . . “claiming our protection”: Francis Lieber, “The Duty of Provisional Governors,” New York Evening Post, June 20, 1862.

228 “acknowledged law of war”: “Memoir on the Military Use of Colored Persons,” in FL to Henry Halleck, August 10, 1862, box 27, FLP HL.

228 “one of the historic facts”: FL to Charles Sumner, June 10, 1863, FLP HL.

229 armed “negro slaves”: OR, series 2, 5: 795–97.

229 selling into slavery . . . begun to execute: FL to Charles Sumner, November 28, 1862, box 42, FLP HL.

229 The reports, it turned out, were true: John David Smith, “Let Us All Be Grateful That We Have Colored Troops That Will Fight,” in Black Soldiers in Blue, 44.

229 Radicals in the Senate: OR, series 2, 5: 9.

229 The telegraph from Halleck: FL to Henry Halleck, December 7, 1862, box 27, FLP HL.

229 “a code of regulations”: OR, series 3, 2: 951.

229 “the most urgent issues”: FL to Henry Halleck, November 13, 1862, box 27, FLP HL; see also FL to Charles Sumner, August 18, 1861, box 42, FLP HL.

229 confusion over the status of slaves: Francis Lieber to Benson J. Lossing, January 21, 1866, box 2, FLP LC; see Mancini, “Francis Lieber, Slavery, and the ‘Genesis’ of the Laws of War.”

229 John Pope issued a set: James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 501.

229 A second Confiscation Act: United States Statutes at Large, Vol. 12 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1863), 589–92.

230 reached out to Lieber: Joseph Holt to FL, February 20, 1863, box 11, FLP HL.

230 a set of instructions for the treatment: Ethan Allen Hitchcock, Fifty Years in Camp and Field: Diary of Major-General Ethan Allen Hitchcock, U.S.A. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1909), 441.

230 new instructions: Paul J. Springer, America’s Captives: Treatment of POWs from the Revolutionary War to the War on Terror (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010), 85.

230 paroling thousands of U.S. troops: A manuscript roll of battlefield paroles from the Gettysburg campaign survives in the Huntington Library. See Isaac Avery, “List of Prisoners Captured at York, Penn., June 28, 1863,” box 2, Collection of James William Eldridge, 1797–1902.

230 The Union protested: Mancini, “Francis Lieber, Slavery, and the ‘Genesis’ of the Laws of War”; FL to Charles Sumner, August 20, 1861, box 42, FLP HL.

231 The board gave him wide discretion: R. R. Baxter, “The First Modern Codification of the Law of War,” International Review of the Red Cross 3 (1963): 171, 180–85; Memorandum: General Orders No. 100 of 1863, file no. 4275, box 23, Office of the Judge Advocate General Document File, 1894–1912, NARA.

231 “I had no guide”: FL to Henry Halleck, February 20, 1863, in Perry, Life and Letters, 331.

231 proliferation of military manuals: Peter Paret, The Cognitive Challenge of War: Prussia, 1806 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 88–91.

231 in Lieber’s private library: George Friedrich Muller, Das Krieges oder Soldatenrecht (Berlin: Petit- and Schöneschen Bookshop, 1789), in box 7, Judge Advocate School Lieber Collection, Federal Research Division, LC.

231 flags of truce and safe-conducts: Instructions, art. 86–87, 111–14.

231 “already wholly disabled”: Ibid., art. 71.

231 It authorized the execution: Ibid., art. 83, 88, 104.

232 conscription of local guides: Ibid., art. 93–97.

232 rules for prisoner exchanges: Ibid., art. 105–10.

232 special yellow markings: Ibid., art. 115.

232 “an outlaw”: Ibid., art. 148.

232 “peaceful pursuits” . . . “robbers or pirates”: Ibid., art. 82.

232 only valid if approved: Ibid., art. 128–30.

232 “so plainly characterizes”: [A Note on] War [n.d.], box 19, FLP HL.

232 “all soldiers”: Instructions, art. 49.

232 “disgrace, by cruel imprisonment”: Ibid., art. 56.

232 “plain and wholesome food”: Ibid., art. 76.

232 No violence could be used: Ibid., art. 80.

232 “extort confessions”: Ibid., art. 16.

232 “a man is armed”: Ibid., art. 57.

233 was subject to retaliation: Ibid., art. 59.

233 “chief commander” could “permit”: A Code for the Government of Armies in the Field as Authorized by the Laws and Usages of War on Land, §35, p. 12, register no. 243077, Y Halleck II, HL.

233 “permitted to direct his troops”: Instructions, art. 60.

233 “known or discovered”: Ibid., art. 62.

233 fought in enemy uniforms: Ibid., art. 65 & 83.

233 “without any plain”: Ibid., art. 63.

233 “the unarmed citizen”: Ibid., art. 22.

233 “not a relationship between”: Victor Gourevitch, ed., Rousseau: The Social Contract and Other Later Political Writings (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 1: 46.

233 “the citizen or native”: Instructions, art. 21.

233 the starving of noncombatants: Ibid., art. 17.

233 bombard cities: Ibid., art. 19.

233 “throw the burden of the war”: Ibid., art. 156.

233 “acknowledge and protect”: Ibid., art. 37.

233 It gave special protections: Ibid., art. 34.

234 “seized and removed”: Ibid., art. 36.

234 to tax the population or billet soldiers: Ibid., art. 10, 37, 153.

234 “for temporary and military uses”: Ibid., art. 37.

234 “over-trained idea” . . . “nor ought it to be”: Law and Usages of War [1862], folder 18, box 2, FLP JHU.

234 “useless destruction”: Francis Lieber, Law and Usages of War, unpublished MS [n.d.], folder 18, box 2, FLP JHU.

234 “All captures and booty”: Instructions, art. 45.

234 Neither “officers nor soldiers”: Ibid., art. 46.

234 “lawful only as a means” . . . “civilized people”: [Francis Lieber], War and Peace: Destruction and Obstruction Characterize War; Production and Expanding Inter-Communication Distinguish Peace Among the Nations (1863), unpublished MS, box 19, FLP HL.

234 “Unnecessary or revengeful”: Instructions, art. 68.

234 “in great straits”: Ibid., art. 60.

234 “as much as the contingencies”: Ibid., art. 116.

234 “all cruelty and bad faith”: Ibid., art. 11.

235 “admits of all direct destruction”: Ibid., art. 15.

235 “Military necessity”: Ibid., art. 14.

236 “When war is begun”: [Newspaper clipping], New York Evening Post, folder 18, box 2, FLP JHU.

236 “The more vigorously wars”: Instructions, art. 29.

236 “conventional restrictions of the modes”: Ibid., art. 30.

236 “self-imposed, imperceptible”: Carl von Clausewitz, On War, trans. Michael Howard & Peter Paret (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), 75.

236 “To save the country”: Instructions, art. 5.

236 “The law of war”: Ibid., art. 30.

236 “torture to extort confessions”: Ibid., art. 16, 80.

236 “If Indians slowly roast”: FL to Henry Halleck, December 21, 1864, box 28, FLP HU; see also Law and Usages of War, No. IV, December 17, 1861 [Notebook No. 4], folder 16, box 2, FLP JHU.

237 “not admit of the use of poison”: Instructions, articles 16, 70.

237 “military necessity does not include”: Ibid., art. 16.

237 buried explosive shells: Henry Halleck to FL, August 26, 1863, box 9, FLP HU.

237 booby-trapped bodies: Remarks on ‘Incendiary Balls’ or ‘Rifle Bombs’ Used by the Confederate Army—Also a Torpedo Device, unpublished MS, September 1 & 14, 1863, box 20, FLP HU.

237 “the soldier within me” . . . “Quixotic tournaments”: FL to Henry Halleck, August 24, 1863, box 27, FLP HL.

237 “Men who take up arms”: Instructions, art. 15.

237 Halleck and Stanton handled that: Halleck sent the telegraph asking Lieber to come to Washington. We know that Stanton was involved from the start because Lieber asked Halleck whether his travel plans would suit Stanton. See FL to Henry Halleck, December 9, 1862, box 27, FLP HL.

238 “approved by the President”: OR, series 3, 3: 148.

238 “liberty to use violence against”: Orville H. Browning to Abraham Lincoln, Sep. 31, 1861, ALP LC.

238 “any available means” . . . “rose-water?”: AL to Cuthbert Bullitt, July 28, 1862, in Basler, 5: 346.

238 “he was pretty well cured”: Salmon P. Chase, Inside Lincoln’s Cabinet: The Civil War Diaries of Salmon P. Chase (New York: Longmans, Green, 1954), 106.

238 “mistaken deference”: Horace Greeley to Abraham Lincoln, August 1, 1862, ALP LC.

238 “If I could save the Union”: AL to Horace Greeley, in Basler, 5: 388–89.

239 “come to the conclusion”: Gideon Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy Under Lincoln and Johnson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911), 1: 70.

239 “Civilized belligerents” . . . “saving the Union”: AL to James C. Conkling, August 26, 1863, Basler, 6: 406, 408.

239 separated those who engaged in battles: Carol Chomsky, “The United States—Dakota War Trials: A Study in Military Injustice,” Stanford Law Review 43 (1990): 13; Maeve Herbert Glass, “Explaining the Sioux Military Commission of 1862,” Columbia Human Rights Law Review 40 (2009): 743.

239 “could not afford”: Don E. Fehrenbacher & Virginia Fehrenbacher, eds., Recollected Words of Abraham Lincoln (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), 372.

239 “where necessary for military”: James Randall, Constitutional Problems Under Lincoln (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1951), 367.

240 “Murders for old grudges”: AL to Charles Drake, Oct. 5, 1863, Basler, 6: 500.

240 “The colored population”: James M. McPherson, The Negro’s Civil War: How American Negroes Felt and Acted During the War for the Union (New York: Pantheon Books, 1965), 169.

240 “important to the enemy”: AL to David Hunter, April 1, 1863, Basler, 6: 158.

241 Halleck asked Lieber to add: Henry Halleck to FL, February 28, 1863, box 9, FLP HL; FL to Henry Halleck, March 4, 1863 and March 23, 1863, box 27, FLP HL; “For General Halleck: Insurrection. Rebellion. Civil War. Foreign Invasion of the United States” (1863), unpublished MS, box 18, FLP HL; Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, Section X. Insurrection.—Rebellion.—Civil War.—Foreign Invasion of the United States, unpublished MS, register no. 240460, HL.

241 Lieber sent out a printed first draft: E.g., FL to Henry Halleck, February 20, 1863, box 27, FLP HL.

241 The passages he asked about: FL to Charles Sumner, February 24, 1863, box 43, FLP HL.

241 of which he was most proud: FL to Charles Sumner, May 19, 1863, box 43, FLP HL.

241 making important additions: FL to HWH, June 18, 1863, box 27 (observing that Halleck drafted the last clause of s. 43 relating to belligerent liens and claims of service).

241 omitting clauses he thought: Code for the Government of Armies in the Field (register no. 243077, HL), §23, at p. 9, and §33, at 11.

241 “better than the Emancipation Proclamation”: Hamilton Fish to FL, March 10, 1863, box 7, FLP HL.

241 “vast importance”: Napoleon Bonaparte Buford to Francis Lieber, April 10, 1863, box 3, FLP HL.

242 the more general idea in the law of nations that slavery could exist: See James Oakes, Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States (forthcoming). On Somerset’s Case, see George van Cleve, “Somerset’s Case and Its Antecedents in Imperial Perspective,” Law and History Review 24 (2006): 645.

244 had issued outlawry orders against the principal Union organizers: OR, series 1, 14: 599.

244 “African slaves” . . . “enemy of mankind”: OR, series 1, 15: 906–08.

245 issued early in the spring: OR, series 2, 5: 306–07 (paroles).

245 handed him a copy: OR, series 2, 5: 690.

245 “the boast of modern times”: Cong. Globe, 29th Cong., 2nd sess. (1846), p. 23.

245 “confused” and “undiscriminating”: OR, series 2, 6: 41–47.

245 “a license for a man”: OR, series 2, 5: 744.

245 “Christian warriors”: OR, series 4, 3: 1048.

245 “the most prominent of the matters”: OR, series 2, 6: 47.

245 “Discrimination among”: OR, series 2, 6: 18.

246 “The employment of a servile insurrection”: OR, series 2, 6: 44.

246 Boston Herald: “New Military Instructions,” Boston Herald, May 19, 1863, 4; see also “War Matters,” Boston Herald, July 30, 1863, 2.

246 Daily National Intelligencer: “The Retaliatory Code,” Daily National Intelligencer, June 5, 1863; see also “War Department has officially proclaimed the instructions,” Daily National Intelligencer, May 26, 1863.

246 New York Times: “Our Militia Forces,” New York Times, May 24, 1863. New York Herald: “News from Washington,” New York Herald, May 19, 1863, 7.

246 Charleston Mercury: “Instructions of the Yankee War Department of the Government of Armies in the Field,” Charleston Mercury, May 30, 1863, 1. Daily Picayune: “The New Code of Instruction for the United States Army,” Daily Picayune, June 5, 1863, 2.

246 L’Union in New Orleans: “Instructions à l’Armée,” L’Union (New Orleans), June 4, 1863, 1. Louisville Daily Journal: “The Policy of the War; Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field,” Louisville Daily Journal, May 23, 1863, 1.

246 Extensive treatments soon came out: “The New Code of Instruction for the United States Army,” Baltimore Sun, May 21, 1863, 4; “Regulations for the Army,” New Haven Daily Palladium, May 18, 1863; Boston Daily Advertiser, May 18, 1863; Daily Cleveland Herald, May 18, 1863; Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, May 19, 1863; Daily Evening Bulletin (San Francisco), June 13, 1863.

247 “The President, by approving”: “Retaliatory Code,” Daily National Intelligencer, June 5, 1863.

247 “a complete fallacy”: “Instructions for the Government of the Army,” New York Herald, May 20, 1863, 6.

247 “employment of colored troops”: OR, series 1, 14: 466.

247 joint resolution: OR, series 2, 5: 940–41.

248 the code was response enough: “Retaliatory Code,” Daily National Intelligencer, June 5, 1863.

248 “not one person in a hundred” . . . “impress the rebels”: “Protection for Our Black Troops,” Boston Daily Advertiser, June 11, 1863.

248 “full conversation”: Henry Halleck to FL, August 4, 1863, box 9, FLP HL.

248 in Stanton’s War Department: Basler, 6: 357 n. 1.

248 “class, color, or condition”: Ibid., 6: 357.

248 the Confederate government retreated: Ira Berlin et al., eds., Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867—The Black Military Experience (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 580.

248 “held like other captives”: Ibid.

248 “in suggesting and building up”: Ethan Allen Hitchcock to FL, October 22, 1863, box 11, FLP HL.

249 “that you may know”: OR, series 1, 32 (part 1): 601–02.

Chapter 9. Smashing Things to the Sea

250 “The law of war imposes”: Instructions, art. 30.

250 “War is simply power unrestrained”: OR, series 1, 32 (part 2): 280.

251 On August 9 alone: Stephen Davis, “ ‘Very Barbarous Mode of Carrying on War’: Sherman’s Artillery Bombardment of Atlanta, July 20–August 24, 1864,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 79, no. 1 (1995): 57, 68.

251 to single out particular homes: Davis, “ ‘Very Barbarous Mode,’ ” 68 (“we can pick almost any house in the town”).

251 concentrate their fire at night: Ibid., 68.

251 killed a father and his daughter: Marc Wortman, The Bonfire: The Siege and Burning of Atlanta (New York: Public Affairs, 2009), 294.

251 “destroy Atlanta”: Davis, “ ‘A Very Barbarous Mode,’ ” 68.

251 “make the inside”: W. T. Sherman, Memoirs of William Tecumseh Sherman (New York: Library of America, 1990) (1875), 575.

251 killed around 20 noncombatants: Wortman, Bonfire, 295; Stephen Davis, “How Many Civilians Died in Sherman’s Bombardment of Atlanta?” Atlanta History 45, no. 4 (2003): 4, 19.

251 “even if it result in”: Brooks D. Simpson & Jean V. Berlin, eds., Sherman’s Civil War: Selected Correspondence of William T. Sherman, 1860–1865 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 688.

251 “no consideration”: B. H. Liddell Hart, Sherman: Soldier, Realist, American (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1929), 309.

251 “seeking the lives”: Simpson & Berlin, eds., Sherman’s Civil War, 686.

251 accused Hood of digging: Ibid., 705–06.

251 removed from the town by force: Ibid., 327.

251 “If the people raise a howl”: Simpson & Berlin, eds., Sherman’s Civil War, 697.

251 “in the name of God”: Sherman, Memoirs, 593.

251 “the woe, the horrors”: Ibid., 599.

252 “kindness” . . . “See the books”: Ibid., 594, 601.

252 “moral cloak”: Harry Stout, Upon the Altar of the Nation: A Moral History of the Civil War (New York: Penguin, 2007), 193. Otherwise sophisticated observers often assert (wrongly) that Sherman’s conduct in the war flatly violated the terms of Lieber’s instructions. See Matthew Waxman, “Siegecraft and Surrender: The Law and Strategy of Cities as Targets,” Virginia Journal of International Law 39 (1999): 353, 380; Thomas G. Robisch, “General William T. Sherman: Would the Georgia Campaigns of the First Commander of the Modern Era Comply with Current Law of War Standards?” Emory International Law Review 9 (1995): 459, 461. The more common form of historians’ skepticism comes in simply ignoring Lieber altogether. Neither Lieber nor Lincoln’s 1863 instructions are mentioned in James McPherson’s magisterial Battle Cry of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

253 one of the great crusty characters: Ethan Allen Hitchcock, Fifty Years in Camp and Field, (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1909), 60–69.

253 “a picture of cruelty”: William B. Skelton, An American Profession of Arms: The Army Officer Corps, 1784–1861 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1992), 315.

253 “as white men on this continent”: Hitchcock, Fifty Years in Camp and Field, 5.

253 he read the political tracts: Ibid., 121, 184–85, 207.

254 a philosophical tract of his own: Ethan Allen Hitchcock, The Doctrines of Spinoza and Swedenborg Identified, So Far as They Claim a Scientific Ground (Boston: Munroe & Francis, 1846).

254 inspected Union prisoner of war camps: Herman Hattaway & Eric B. Fair, “Ethan Allen Hitchcock,” American National Biography Online February 2000, http://www.anb.org/articles/04/04-00506.html.

254 Stanton appointed him: Hitchcock, Fifty Years in Camp and Field, 444–45.

254 Since July 1862: OR, series 2, 4: 266–67.

254 10,000 more prisoners: Charles W. Sanders, Jr., While in the Hands of the Enemy: Military Prisons of the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005), 149.

254 turned into breeding grounds: OR, series 2, 5: 38; Sanders, While in the Hands of the Enemy, 136–42.

254 never bothered to report: OR, series 2, 5: 33.

254 The parole of thousands: Matthew J. Mancini, “Francis Lieber, Slavery, and the ‘Genesis’ of the Laws of War,” Journal of Southern History 77, no. 2 (May 2011): 325, 339–40.

255 battlefield paroles were of no legal effect: OR, series 2, 5: 70 (Rosencrans); OR, series 2, 5: 191 (Rosencrans); OR, series 2, 5: 339–40.

255 “not a private act”: Instructions, art. 121.

255 James Seddon initially protested: OR, series 2, 6: 45–47.

255 captured Union soldiers by the thousands: OR, series 2, 6: 60, 63, 77; Isaac Avery, “List of Prisoners Captured at York, Penn., June 28, 1863,” [General Jubal Early’s command], Collection of James William Eldridge, 1797–1902, HL.

255 Stanton rushed out an order: General Orders No. 207, OR, series 2, 6: 78–79.

255 had not superseded the 1862 cartel: OR, series 2, 6: 199; OR, series 2, 6: 471–73.

256 Ould gleefully proposed: OR, series 2, 6: 180–81.

256 continued to treat them as fugitive: Ira Berlin et al., eds., Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867—The Black Military Experience (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 567–80 (cited hereafter as Berlin et al., eds., Black Military Experience).

256 two free black boys: OR, series 2, 5: 455, 484.

256 “red handed on the field”: OR, series 1, 22 (part 2): 965.

256 Newspapers listed: Dudley Taylor Cornish, The Sable Arm: Black Troops in the Union Army, 1861–1865 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1956), 178.

256 sold into slavery: OR, series 2, 5: 966–67.

256 recommended summary execution: Sanders, While in the Hands of the Enemy, 147.

256 “no quarter”: OR, series 2, 6: 22–23.

256 killed on the pretext: OR, series 2, 6: 257–59.

256 discouraged such practices: OR, series 2, 6: 115; OR, series I, 22 (part 2): 964–65; Berlin et al., eds., Black Military Experience, 578–79.

256 keeping the number of black prisoners: OR, series 2, 7: 105.

256 “the interest of the service”: OR, series 2, 6: 257–59.

257 Ferguson and his men: Thomas D. Mays, “The Battle of Saltville,” in John David Smith, ed., Blue: African-American Troops in the Civil War Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 200–26.

257 “no orders, threats”: Cornish, Sable Arm, 177.

257 “murdered on the spot”: OR, series 1, 34 (part 1): 746; Mike Fisher, “The First Kansas Colored—Massacre at Poison Springs,” Kansas History (1979): 121–28.

257 The most notorious race massacre: John Cimprich & Robert C. Mainfort, Jr., “The Fort Pillow Massacre: A Statistical Note,” Journal of American History 76, no. 3 (December 1989): 830–36; Noah Andre Trudeau, “ ‘Kill the Last Damn One of Them’: The Fort Pillow Massacre,” in Robert Cowley, ed., With My Face to the Enemy: Perspectives on the Civil War (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 2001); Gregory J. Macaluso, The Fort Pillow Massacre: The Reason Why (New York: Vantage Press, 1989), 49.

257 “the negroes were shown”: Cimprich & Mainfort, “Fort Pillow Massacre,” 836.

257 Two thirds of the 300 black: Ibid., 835–36.

257 Forrest would later deny: Ronald K. Hutch, “Fort Pillow Massacre: The Aftermath of Paducah,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 66, no. 1 (1973): 60, 69.

258 most historians now agree: See John Cimprich, Fort Pillow, a Civil War Massacre, and Public Memory (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005); John Cimprich, “The Fort Pillow Massacre,” in Smith, ed., Black Soldiers in Blue, 15–68.

258 as he would have treated slaves: For a similar interpretation, see Macaluso, Fort Pillow Massacre, 49–51.

258–59 “seldom imprisoned” . . . “Richmond and Charleston”: Robert Scott Davis, “ ‘Near Andersonville’: An Historical Note on Civil War Legend and Reality,” Journal of African American History 92 (2007): 96, 101.

259 “ten or twelve thousand”: Sanders, While in the Hands of the Enemy, 156–57.

259 “rest mainly upon the heads”: Walt Whitman, “The Prisoners” (Letter to the Editor), New York Times, December 27, 1864.

259 was forbidden to withhold prisoner of war treatment: OR, series 2, 6: 18.

259 “protection to all persons”: OR, series 2, 6: 73.

259 “irrespective of their color”: OR, series 2, 5: 711–12; Cornish, Sable Arm, 163.

259 “bound to give the same”: OR, series 1, 24 (part 3): 425–26; see also 24 (part 3): 589.

259 “the policy, dignity, nor honor”: OR, series 2, 7: 688.

259 often to his own detriment: E.g., Hitchcock, Fifty Years in Camp and Field, 66–67, 432.

259–60 “extreme sufferings” . . . “warfare”: OR, series 2, 6: 594–600; see also Hitchcock’s follow-up to the Times, OR, series 2, 6: 615–17.

260 was merely a pretext for the real reason: For a recent example, see Sanders, While in the Hands of the Enemy, 2 and passim.

260 “a new army 40,000 strong”: OR, series 2, 6: 647.

260 “the United States was prepared”: Berlin et al., eds., Black Military Experience, 88–89.

260 “if the government employs”: Ethan Allen Hitchcock to FL, October 22, 1863, box 11, FLP HL.

260 Hitchcock offered his resignation: OR, series 2, 6: 639.

260–61 “held on to their slaves” . . . “here in bondage”: William Marvel, Andersonville: The Last Depot (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 147–48.

261 Frederick Douglass had made clear: John David Smith, “Let Us All Be Grateful That We Have Colored Troops That Will Fight,” in Smith, ed., Black Soldiers in Blue, 47; Cornish, Sable Arm, 168; James M. McPherson, The Negro’s Civil War: How American Negroes Felt and Acted During the War for the Union (New York: Vintage Books, 1965), 173–75.

261 “it may as well disband”: Berlin et al., eds., Black Military Experience, 587.

261 Grant agreed to resume: James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982), 456.

261 The Union offered precisely: E.g., OR, series 2, 6: 136; OR, series 2, 7: 687; OR, series 2, 8: 801.

261 Grant himself offered: McPherson, Ordeal by Fire, 456.

261 “die in the last ditch”: OR, series 2, 6: 226.

262 “They well know”: Kenneth W. Noe, “ ‘Alabama, We Will Fight for Thee’: The Initial Motivations of Later-Enlisting Confederates,” Alabama Review (July 2009): 163, 179.

262 “the chief” and “insurmountable” obstacle: OR, series 2, 7: 105.

263 Some 55,000 men died: Sanders, While in the Hands of the Enemy, 1.

263 Joseph Holt was born . . . worked feverishly to bolster: Elizabeth D. Leonard, Lincoln’s Avengers: Justice, Revenge, and Reunion After the Civil War (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2004), 12–23; Mary Bernard Allen, Joseph Holt, Judge Advocate General, 1862–1875: A Study in the Treatment of Political Prisoners by the United States Government During the Civil War, Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1927, 47–75.

263 delivered to the new president: Joshua E. Kastenberg, Law in War, War as Law: Brigadier General Joseph Holt and the Judge Advocate General’s Department in the Civil War and Early Reconstruction, 1861–1865 (Durham, NC.: Carolina Academic Press, 2011), 25–27.

263 “went further in his hatred”: Ibid., 17.

263 “the fallacy of neutrality”: Joseph Holt, The Fallacy of Neutrality: An Address by the Hon. Joseph Holt, to the People of Kentucky, Delivered at Louisville, July 13, 1861 (New York: J. G. Gregory, 1861).

263 he nearly chose Holt as Cameron’s: Leonard, Lincoln’s Avengers, 25–26.

264 From 1821 to 1849: The Army Lawyer: A History of the Judge Advocate General’s Corps, 1775–1975 (Washington, DC: Judge Advocate General’s Department, 1975), 35–40.

264 John Fitzgerald Lee: Kastenberg, Law in War, War as Law, 5, 38–52.

264 He doubted military commissions’ authority: OR, series 2, 1: 373; Kastenberg, Law in War, War as Law, 49.

264 “when not a legitimate belligerent” . . . “known to our laws”: Allen, Joseph Holt, Judge Advocate General, 37–39.

264 recruited thirty-three men: The Army Lawyer, 54; William McKee Dunn, A Sketch of the History and Duties of the Judge Advocate General (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876). Biographical information on the Civil War judge advocates is drawn mostly from Kastenberg, Law in War, War as Law, 117–58.

265 affirmed the president’s power: Kastenberg, Law in War, War as Law, 27.

265 “a most powerful and reliable”: Joseph Holt to Edwin M. Stanton, August 20, 1863, JHP LC.

265 the self-defense rights of newly free: Joseph Holt to AL, May 30, 1864, and Joseph Holt to AL, June 6, 1864, both in JHP LC; West Bogan, NN 1823, box 1689, record Group 153, NARA.

265 “as occupying the status of freedmen”: Holt to AL, May 30, 1864.

265 rumors that Confederate captors were quietly: Kastenberg, Law in War, War as Law, 243.

266 “barbarous avarice”: Joseph Holt to AL, May 24, 1864, JHP LC.

266 “state or political prisoners”: Stat., 12: 755.

266 “extremely difficult of construction”: Joseph Holt to Edwin M. Stanton, June 9, 1863, JHP LC.

267 “the most common form of charge”: William Winthrop, Digest of Opinions of the Judge Advocate General of the Army (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 3d ed., 1868), 234.

267–68 abusing prisoners of war . . . occasionally charged men: See, e.g., Joseph J. Zabu, LL 561, record group 153, NARA; James Fitzgerald, LL 550, record group 153, NARA; John Flora, OO 1452, record group 153, NARA.

268 lurking behind Union lines: E.g., Thomas Laswell, LL 2638, box 762, record group 153, NARA; NN2732, record group 153, NARA.

268 Breaking oaths of allegiance: Winthrop, Digest of Opinions, 383.

268 parole violation: E.g., John A. Skaggs, MM 1303, box 990, record group 153, NARA.

268 recruiting for the Confederacy behind Union lines: John Thraikill, NN 1233, box 1638, record group 153, NARA; Joseph R. Mathews, LL 1902, record group 153, NARA; Edward A. Muir, LL 938, record group 153, NARA.

268 constituted nearly 85 percent: I made these calculations from Gideon Hart’s research, which found military commissions charging law of war violations against 566 civilians, 32 guerrillas, 71 Confederate soldiers, and 13 Union soldiers. For examples, see James H. Smith, MM 1309, box 990, record group 153, NARA (violation of laws of war for being a guerrilla); Jesse Fassell, KK 121, record group 153, NARA (violation of the laws of war for being a marauder).

268 suspected members of the notorious: Jeremiah Hoy, KK 151, record group 153, NARA (violation of the laws of war for murdering with Quantrill’s raiders).

268 “using disloyal language” . . . Going into the South without a pass: Winthrop, Digest of Opinions, 225–27, 230, 234, 288–89, 383–84, 386–87.

268 trading with the enemy: M. T. Wells, KK 833, record group 153, NARA (carrying a dispatch to a Confederate general); William J. Kribben, LL 534, LL 674, record group 153, NARA (carrying letters across Union lines to the South).

268 after joining the rebel army: Albert Johnson, II 999, record group 153, NARA; William Russell, LL 580, folder 1, record group 153, NARA; James Herron, LL 563, record group 153, NARA.

268 evading service in the Union armed forces: James C. Moore, LL 647, record group 153, NARA.

269 One St. Louis woman: Zaidee J. Bagwell, LL 548, record group 153, NARA.

269 A Baltimore woman: Winthrop, Digest of Opinions, 384.

269 Horse-stealing could be a war crime: Aroswell D. Severance, II 951, II 931, record group 153, NARA.

269 Expressing anti-Union views: J. S. Hyatt, KK 821, record group 153, NARA; Winthrop, Digest of Opinions, 225.

269 Judge advocates sometimes charged: E.g., Thomas Clark, KK 833, KK 818, record group 153, NARA; William Harding, KK 818, record group 153, NARA; A. Alexander, LL 289, folder 1, record group 153, NARA.

270 Congress belatedly recognized this: L. D. Ingersoll, A History of the War Department of the United States: With Biographical Sketches of the Secretaries (Washington, DC: Francis B. Mohun, 1879), 150.

270 promoting the Judge Advocate General: The Army Lawyer, 51.

270 John Frémont in Missouri: Gideon Hart, “Military Commissions and the Lieber Code: Toward a New Understanding of the Jurisdictional Foundations of Military Commissions,” Military Law Review 203 (Spring 2010): 1, 9–12.

270 So did Ulysses S. Grant: Mark E. Neely, Jr., The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties (New York: Oxford University, 1991), 35, 39.

270 to try civilians for treason: Ibid., 42–43; Hart, “Military Commissions and the Lieber Code,” 19.

270 Halleck edited so heavily: Halleck’s markup of the committee print of Lieber’s early draft code is in the Huntington Library. See “A Code for the Government of Armies in the Field as Authorized by the Laws and Usages of War on Land,” HL, register no. 243077, Y Halleck II.

270 cited particular code provisions: E.g., James McGregory, NN 1234, box 1638, record group 153, NARA; Winthrop, Digest of Opinions, 382–83.

270 relied on Lieber for advice: Joseph Holt to FL, February 20, 1863, box 11, FLP HL; Joseph Holt to FL, February 26, 1863, box 11, FLP HL; Neely, Fate of Liberty, 160; Allen, Joseph Holt, 110; see also Elizabeth D. Leonard, Lincoln’s Forgotten Ally: Judge Advocate Joseph Holt of Kentucky (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 181.

270 the prosecution and the defense: E.g., Joseph Holt, “To Major General Summer, President and the Members of the Court,” box 2, Joseph Holt Collection, HL.

270 appointed Lieber’s son Norman: The Army Lawyer, 85–86.

270 military commissions spread to military departments: I rely here on the prodigious research done for me by Gideon Hart. See Hart, “Military Commissions and the Lieber Code,” 41–42.

271 “take cognizance of”: Ibid., 40.

271 “War is not carried on”: Instructions, art. 17.

271 “native of a hostile country”: Ibid., art. 21.

271 “to property, and to persons”: Ibid., art. 7.

271 “or rather must”: Neely, Fate of Liberty, 160.

271 “careful trials of spies”: FL to Henry Halleck, March 18, 1865, box 28, FLP HL.

271 “no person accused”: FL to Joseph Holt, June 12, 1863, JHP LC.

271 arrested Vallandigham in his bedroom: Frank L. Klement, The Limits of Dissent: Clement Vallandigham & the Civil War (New York: Fordham University Press, 1998), 157–58.

271 “Lincoln and his minions”: The Trial of Hon. Clement L. Vallandigham by a Military Commission and the Proceedings Under His Application for a Writ of Habeas Corpus (Cincinnati: Rickey & Carroll, 1863), 11.

271–72 “all persons found within”: General Orders No. 38, April 13, 1863, OR, series 1, 23 (part 2): 237. There is no direct evidence that Burnside drew on Lieber’s text. Halleck told Lieber that Burnside had acted on his own without consulting Union authorities in Washington—Henry Halleck to FL, May 16, 1863, box 9, FLP HL. Early prints of the draft code had been distributed in March. Whether Burnside had patterned his order off Lieber’s or not, Lieber thought that Burnside’s order was dangerously aggressive—FL to Henry Halleck, May 15, 1863, box 27, FLP HL.

272 he was not, he insisted: Trial of Hon. Clement L. Vallandigham, 12, 29.

272 Aaron Fyfe Perry: Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=P000241.

272 Flamen Ball: “Obituary: Flamen Ball,” American Law Record 13 (1885): 572.

272 “laws of war” . . . “the women and children”: Ex parte Vallandigham, 28 F. Cas. 874, 894 (C.C.S.D. Ohio 1863) (argument of Aaron Perry).

272 “Ohio . . . is at war”: 28 F. Cas. at 919 (argument of Flamen Ball).

273 Sensing that he was in: 28 F. Cas. at 922–23.

273 pronounced Vallandigham guilty: Trial of Hon. Clement L. Vallandigham, 33.

273 Lincoln promptly reduced: Ibid., 34.

273 “in conformity with the instructions” . . . “common law of war”: Ex parte Vallandigham, 68 U.S. 243, 248–49 & nn.1–2 (1864).

273 A small rebel office: The Army Lawyer, 58–59.

273 executed them by hanging: OR, series 1, 10 (part 1): 630–38; William Pittenger, Daring and Suffering: A History of the Andrews Railroad Raid into Georgia in 1862 (New York: War Publishing Co., 1887), supp. 50–51.

273 refused to appoint a Judge Advocate General: William Morrison Robinson, Justice in Grey: A History of the Judicial System of the Confederate States of America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941), 378–80.

273 martial law as anathema: Ibid., 381.

273 no military tribunal jurisdiction: OR, series 2, 4: 894–97.

274 “irksome, uncongenial”: Henry G. Connor, John Archibald Campbell: Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, 1853–1861 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1920), 159.

274 under the state criminal laws: Berlin et al., eds., Black Military Experience, 567–68.

274 Athens, Georgia, in 1862: Mark Grimsley, The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy Toward Southern Civilians, 1861–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 81–84; Earnest E. East, “Lincoln’s Russian General,” Illinois State HistoricalSociety 52, no. 1 (Spring 1959): 106, 108–12; George C. Bradley & Richard L. Dahlen, From Conciliation to Conquest: The Sack of Athens and the Court-Martial of Colonel John B. Turchin (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2006).

274 the events at Chambersburg: Harry Stout, Upon the Altar of the Nation: A Moral History of the Civil War (New York: Penguin Books, 2005), 375–76.

274 taken out and shot by firing squad: Lonnie R. Speer, War of Vengeance: Acts of Retaliation Against Civil War POWs (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2002), 29–41.

275 the population had provided: Burrus M. Carnahan, Lincoln on Trial: Southern Civilians and the Law of War (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2010), 63–64.

275 internecine guerrilla actions across the Upper South: See, e.g., Richard R. Duncan, Beleaguered Winchester: A Virginia Community at War, 1861–1865 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007), 177–91; Robert R. Mackey, The Uncivil War: Irregular Warfare in the Upper South, 1861–1865 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004), 33–40.

275 Rumors of exploding bullets: “Greek Fire,” from the New York Evening Post, September [1?], 1863, in box 20, FLP HL.

275 old vessels in the mouth of the harbor: Clippings on “Stone Blockade,” folder 18, box 2, FLP JHU.

275 booby-trapped bodies: Harper’s Weekly, September 19, 1863, box 20, FLP HL.

275 Sherman’s background: John F. Marszalek, Sherman: A Soldier’s Passion for Order (New York: Free Press, 1993).

275 “standard of conduct was”: Charles Royster, The Destructive War: William Tecumseh Sherman, Stonewall Jackson, and the Americans (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991), 95.

276 “Goths or Vandals”: James M. McPherson, “Two Strategies of Victory: William T. Sherman in the Civil War,” Atlanta History 33, no. 4 (Winter 1989–90): 5, 12.

276 “fugitive slaves must be delivered”: OR, series 2, 1: 749.

276 “all in the South are enemies”: McPherson, “Two Strategies of Victory,” 15.

276 “not only fighting hostile armies”: Simpson & Berlin, eds., Sherman’s Civil War, 776.

276 “all the damage you can”: McPherson, “Two Strategies of Victory,” 6.

276 “destroy every mill”: Sherman, Memoirs, 603.

276 “make a wreck of the road”: OR, series 1, 36 (part I): 39.

276 “the utter destruction”: OR, series 1, 39 (part 3): 162.

277 “If a little salt”: Sherman, Memoirs, 700.

277 “I propose”: Joseph T. Glatthaar, The March to the Sea and Beyond: Sherman’s Troops in the Savannah and Carolina Campaigns (New York: New York University Press, 1985), 6.

277 “I can make the march”: Hart, Sherman: Soldier, Realist, American, 320.

277 “desolating the land”: Sherman, Memoirs, 614.

277 “all idea of the establishment”: Ibid., 364.

277 “I would not coax them”: Ibid., 365.

277 managed to limit the violence: See Glatthaar, March to the Sea, 73–74, 87; Grimsley, The Hard Hand of War, 199 and passim; Mark E. Neely, Jr., The Civil War and the Limits of Destruction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007); and James M. McPherson, “The Hard Hand of War,” in James M. McPherson, This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 123–29.

277 “anything of any military value”: Glatthaar, March to the Sea, 8.

277 90,000 bales of cotton: Statistics of destruction come from ibid., 130–36.

277 “The remainder”: OR, series 1, 44: 13.

277 “spare nothing”: Sherman, Memoirs, 662.

278 the “whole army”: Grimsley, Hard Hand of War, 201.

278 The capital itself: Royster, Destructive War, 3–33.

278 “hypocritical appeals”: Simpson & Berlin, eds., Sherman’s Civil War, 706.

278 “outrages, cruelty, [and] barbarity” . . . “can whip”: Ibid., 694.

278 “crowds of idlers”: Ibid., 689.

278 “slow the progress of his army”: Paul J. Springer, America’s Captives: Treatment of POWs from the Revolutionary War to the War on Terror (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2010), 89.

278 “At times”: Major S. H. M. Byers, With Fire and Sword (New York: Neale Publishing Co., 1911), 177.

278 “To secure the navigation”: OR, series 1, 31 (part 3): 459.

278 mass relocation of the southern population: E.g., OR, series 1, 32 (part 2): 278; Simpson & Berlin, eds., Sherman’s Civil War, 183.

279 cotton works at Roswell: Mary Deborah Petite, “The Women Will Howl”: The Union Army Capture of Roswell and New Manchester, Georgia, and the Forced Relocation of Mill Workers (Jefferson, NC: McFarland Publishing Co., 2008).

279 then again at Atlanta: Grimsley, Hard Hand of War, 186–90.

279 “the humanities of the case”: McPherson, “Two Strategies of Victory,” 15.

279 the way to end the suffering of his people: Simpson & Berlin, eds., Sherman’s Civil War, 707–09.

279 “the more awful you can make”: Byers, With Fire and Sword, 177.

279 One officer under his command later remembered: Ibid.

279 could not recall the occasion: Marszalek, Sherman: A Soldier’s Passion, 477.

279 “War is barbarism”: Hart, Sherman: Soldier, Realist, American, 310.

279 “war is simply power”: OR, series 1, 32 (part 2): 280.

279 “war is cruelty”: Simpson & Berlin, eds., Sherman’s Civil War, 708.

279 “Boys, it is all hell”: Fred R. Shapiro, ed., The Yale Book of Quotations (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 708.

280 “barbarous cruelty” . . . “Thirty Years’ War”: Jefferson Davis, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1881), 2: 564, 629.

280 Lincoln followed Sherman’s campaign: Henry Hitchcock to FL, January 15, 1865, box 11, FLP HL.

280 taken care of the injured Hamilton: FL to Henry Halleck, March 18, 1862, box 27, FLP HL; FL to Charles Sumner, March 23, 1862, box 42, FLP HL.

280 “Sherman moves his army better than”: FL to Henry Halleck, February 24, 1865, box 28, FLP HL.

280 “Assuredly my name is” . . . “ruthless revenge”: FL to Henry Halleck, February 11, 1865, box 28, FLP HL.

280 Napoleon’s rise from popular general: See, e.g., FL to [Alexander Dallas Bache], December 14, 1861, box 23, FLP HL; FL to Charles Sumner, March 28, 1865, box 44, FLP HL; see also Francis Lieber, “Washington and Napoleon,” in Daniel C. Gilman, ed., The Miscellaneous Writings of Francis Lieber (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1881), 1: 413–41.

281 “forage liberally” . . . “discreet officers”: Sherman, Memoirs, 652.

281 “most important”: Ibid., 651.

281 “soldier passed me with a ham”: Ibid., 658.

281 to vacuum all the usable goods: Glatthaar, March to the Sea, 121–55.

281 Bummers hanged: Ibid., 72–73.

281 pistols to the heads: Ibid., 126.

281 Executions sometimes followed: Ibid., 72–73, 126.

282 Confederate home guards: Ibid., 128.

282 counted 173 of its men: Ibid., 128.

282 booby-trapped false caches: Ibid., 126.

282 ordered the execution of Confederate prisoners: Ibid., 152–53.

282 only “corps commanders” were authorized: Sherman, Memoirs, 652.

282 burned some 5,000 homes: Glatthaar, March to the Sea, 139.

282 “almost as though there was a Secret”: Ibid., 140.

282 “inexcusable and wanton”: James Reston, Jr., Sherman’s March and Vietnam (New York: Macmillan, 1984), 70.

282 “I never ordered” . . . “Jeff Davis burnt them”: Ibid., 31.

282 “the soldiers will take”: Royster, Destructive War, 344.

282 “many acts of pillage”: Sherman, Memoirs, 659.

282 cited Sherman’s approval in his defense: Royster, Destructive War, 343.

283 “in particular places”: Frank Freidel, “General Orders 100 and Military Government,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 32, no. 4 (March 1947): 541, 552–53 (Halleck to Hurlbut); see also OR, series 1, 22 (part 2): 292 (Halleck to Schofield).

283 “War is an uncivil game”: Glatthaar, March to the Sea, 136.

283 “Truly”: Grimsley, Hard Hand of War, 185.

283 “Boys, this is old South Carolina”: Ibid., 201.

283 “country behind us”: Glatthaar, March to the Sea, 142.

Chapter 10. Soldiers and Gentlemen

285 With malice toward none: Basler, 8: 333.

285 “one of the worst for which”: Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant (1885–86); ed. James M. McPherson, New York: Penguin Books, 1999, 601.

285 “the great mass”: Ibid., 603.

285 Grant promised that: Ibid., 604.

286 “a general oblivion”: See, e.g., Article I of the Treaty of Paris in 1763 at the end of the Seven Years’ War, available at http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/paris763.asp; see generally Lassa Oppenheim, International Law: A Treatise (New York: Longmans, Green, 1912), 2: 334–35.

286 “forgetting and amnesty”: George Friedrich Muller, Das Krieges oder Soldatenrecht (Berlin: Petit- and Schöneschen Bookshop, 1789), §9, in box 7, Judge Advocate School Lieber Collection, Federal Research Division, LC.

286 Sherman and General Joseph Johnston: OR, series 1, 47 (part 3): 243–45.

286 the president issued an amnesty: Richardson, 6: 310–12; OR, series 2, 8: 578–60.

286 “general amnesty of all past offences”: Kappler, 2: 920.

286 the English Civil War: Barbara Donagan, War in England, 1642–1649 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Geoffrey Parker, “Early Modern Europe,” in Michael Howard, George J. Andreopulos, & Mark R. Shulman, eds., The Laws of War: Constraints on Warfare in the Western World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 50–51.

286 the uprising in Scotland: Bruce Lenman, The Jacobite Risings in Britain 1689–1746 (London: Eyre/Methuen, 1980).

286 executed thousands of defeated Irish: Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010), 80.

286 Napoleon imposed: Milton Finley, The Most Monstrous of Wars: The Napoleonic Guerrilla War in Southern Italy, 1806–1811 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994), 139–40; Charles J. Esdaile, Fighting Napoleon: Guerrillas, Bandits, and Adventurers in Spain, 1808–1814 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004).

286 it authorized treason prosecutions: Instructions, art. 154 & 157.

287 cast Jefferson Davis: William J. Cooper, Jefferson Davis, American (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000), 536–38.

287 held his vice president: Thomas E. Schott, Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia: A Biography (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988), 451.

287 Union forces arrested: OR, series 2, 8: 529 (Ould), 539 (Vance), 550 (Hunter), 551 (Campbell and Stephens), 553–57 (Wirz), 560 (Cobb, Toombs, and Brown), 566–68 (Campbell, Reagan, and Seddon), 577 (Hill), 639 (Wirz), 658 (Allison), 662–64 (Trenholm and Mallory), 690 (Davis), 812–14 (Clay).

288 “read the same Bible” . . . “with all nations”: Basler, 8: 333.

288 “had been gentle & forgiving”: Charles Sumner to Elizabeth Georgiana Campbell, Duchess of Argyll, April 24, 1865, HM 51929, Charles Sumner Collection, HL. Sumner took Lincoln’s paraphrase of Matthew 7:1 and unconsciously reverted to the text of the King James Bible.

288 he offered full pardons: Basler, 7: 53–56.

288 “otherwise than lawfully”: Ibid., 7: 55.

288 the offer remained open: Ibid., 8: 152.

288 “reaccept the Union”: Ibid., 8: 151.

288 Privately he hoped Davis: David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 583.

288 In February 1865, Lincoln even: Basler, 8: 260–61.

289 “If you go to war”: Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 2nd sess., 364; see also Bruce Tap, Over Lincoln’s Shoulder: The Committee on the Conduct of the War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 207; H. L. Trefousse, Benjamin Franklin Wade (New York: Twayne, 1963), 237; Harry Williams, “Benjamin F. Wade and the Atrocity Propaganda of the Civil War,” Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 68 (1939): 33–43.

289 Sumner disagreed: Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 2nd sess., 381–82.

289 “If they take a tooth”: Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 2nd sess., 517.

289 he aimed to adapt: On Holt, see Elizabeth D. Leonard, Lincoln’s Forgotten Ally: Judge Advocate General Joseph Holt of Kentucky (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011); Elizabeth D. Leonard, Lincoln’s Avengers: Justice, Revenge, and Reunion After the Civil War (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2004).

289 Stanton personally launched: Leonard, Lincoln’s Avengers, 8–11.

290 The new attorney general . . . agreed: For the cabinet discussion, which appears to have been cursory, see Gideon Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy Under Lincoln and Johnson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911), 2: 303–04. Only Welles and Benjamin McCulloch, the new secretary of the Treasury, disagreed with the decision to use a military commission.

290 “one of the feeblest men”: Charles Fairman, Mr. Justice Miller and the Supreme Court, 1862–1890 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1939), 118.

290 “If the persons charged”: AG Opinions, 11: 297, 317.

290 reached his conclusion by May 1: Edward Steers, Jr., The Trial: The Assassination of President Lincoln and the Trial of the Conspirators (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2003), 17.

291 They were dressed in black: Leonard, Lincoln’s Avengers, 69.

291 spared the indignity of the hood: Edward Steers, Jr., & Harold Holzer, The Lincoln Assassination Conspirators: Their Confinement and Execution, As Recorded in the Letterbook of John Frederick Hartranft (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2009), 88–90 (pp. 19–21 of the MS letterbook). Precisely who among the accused were wearing hoods and shackles has long been a source of minor controversy. John Hartranft, who commanded the military prison where the prisoners were held and who wrote letters contemporaneous with the events, denied that Mudd or Surratt wore hoods. On the other hand, commission member August Kautz recalled that all the accused conspirators wore hoods. See August V. Kautz, “Reminiscences of the Civil War: Transcribed from the Original Manuscripts and Presented to the Army War College Library,” unpublished MS, NYHS.

291 “I was quite impressed”: Leonard, Lincoln’s Avengers, 69.

291 The secrecy rule was lifted: Ibid., 71.

291 George Atzerodt . . . weapons and a bankbook: Pitman, 144.

291 Lewis Powell . . . was identified: Ibid., 155–56.

291 convincingly connected: Ibid., 235.

291 Edman Spangler: Ibid., 75–76, 79–80.

291 had sought medical assistance: Ibid., 168.

292 Weichman further testified that he had spent time together with Mudd and Booth: Ibid., 114.

292 all frequented the Surratt boardinghouse: Ibid., 113–15.

292 left guns and ammunition: Ibid., 85.

292 The charges named: Ibid., 18.

292 had jurisdiction only over soldiers: Ibid., 22, 251–63.

293 Thomas Ewing, Jr. . . . argued: Ibid., 245–47.

293 “By what law”: Ibid., 352.

293 “the civil courts have no more right”: AG Opinions, 315.

294 “the common law of war”: Instructions for Armies of the United States, art. 13; Ex parte Vallandigham, 68 U.S. 243, 249 (1864).

294 By “what code or system of laws”: Pitman, 246.

294 “the common law of war”: Ibid., 247.

294 he offered into evidence: Ibid., 243–44. The leading publisher of the trial proceedings included the entire text of Lincoln’s 1863 instructions as an appendix to the trial transcript. See ibid., 410–19.

294 returned guilty verdicts for all eight: Ibid., 247–49.

294 Judge Andrew Wylie: The Trial of the Assassins and Conspirators at Washington, D.C., May and June, 1865, for the Murder of President Abraham Lincoln (Philadelphia: T. B. Peterson & Brothers, 1865), 209–10; see also Pitman, 250, which (though usually superior to the Peterson edition of the transcript) is less useful on this point. I am grateful to Andrew Wylie, great-grandson of Judge Wylie, for helping me with the family history here.

295 The commission heard about surreptitious: Pitman, 53–54 (burn the North’s major cities); 47–49 (destroy civilian steamboats); 50–51 (Union supply lines at City Point); 54–57 (introduce infectious diseases); 57–62 (starve captured Union soldiers); 53 (St. Albans, Vermont).

295 Holt relied on a man: Ibid., 28–33.

295 “the plot to assassinate”: Ibid., 28.

295 For Conover, whose real name: Leonard, Lincoln’s Avengers, 86, 103–04, 215–36, 266–70.

295 Toronto Globe published: “General News,” New York Times, June 26, 1865.

295 New York Times reported: “Sanford Conover,” New York Times, June 18, 1865.

295 warned Holt that Conover was a notorious character: Leonard, Lincoln’s Avengers, 85.

296 “Everybody”: Pitman, 239.

296 “simply because they were Trojans”: Ibid., 267.

296 “all the people of the United States”: Ibid., 266.

296 to set fire to Chicago: OR, series 2, 8: 54; Stephen Z. Starr, Colonel Grenfell’s Wars: The Life of a Soldier of Fortune (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971).

296 John Yates Beall at Fort Lafayette: The Trial of John Yates Beall as a Spy and Guerrillero, by Military Commission (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1865).

297 “It is a murder”: Memoir of John Yates Beall: His Life; Trial; Correspondence; Diary; and Private Manuscript Found Among His Papers (Montreal: John Lovell, 1865), 87.

297 Booth had hoped to avenge: James G. Randall, ed., The Diary of Orville Hickman Browning (Springfield, IL: Illinois State Historical Library, 1933), 2: 19.

297 to set a great fire in Manhattan: Nat Brandt, The Man Who Tried to Burn New York (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1986).

297 P. T. Barnum’s museum: “Barnum’s American Museum” [advertisement], Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (New York), April 22, 1865, p. 66.

297 in the Department of the Cumberland: E.g., Lewis C. Adams, General Court-Martial Order 17, General Court-Martial Orders: Department of the Cumberland, 1861–1865, Library of Congress Rare Book and Special Collections.

298 in the Department of the East: E.g., Joseph V. Smedley and John P. Roberts, General Orders No. 5, Military Trials: Department of the East, 1865–1866, LC.

298 in Virginia and North Carolina: E.g., Samuel Etheridge, James White, and Charles Bullock, General Court-Martial Order No. 7, General Orders: Department of Virginia and North Carolina, 1864–1865, U.S. Military Academy Library at West Point, Special Collections.

298 in the Department of the Gulf: Charles Cavanac and S. U. Birt, General Orders No. 12, General Orders: Department of the Gulf, 1865, LC.

298 and in Missouri: E.g., Joseph T. Weldon and George M. Tye, General Orders No. 40, General Orders: Department of Missouri, 1865, New-York Historical Society.

298 tried and convicted Champ Ferguson: Thomas D. Mays, Cumberland Blood: Champ Ferguson’s Civil War (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2008).

298 another commission in Wilmington: Letter of the Secretary of War, Senate Exec. Doc. No. 11, 39th Cong.. 1st sess. (1866).

298 a bleak seventeen-acre camp: Ovid L. Futch, History of Andersonville Prison (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1968); Charles W. Sanders, Jr., While in the Hands of the Enemy: Military Prisons of the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005), 198–317; J. H. Segars, Andersonville: The Southern Perspective (Atlanta: Southern Heritage Press, 1995).

298 took in between 41,000 and 45,000: William Marvel, Andersonville: The Last Depot (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), ix (41,000); Paul J. Springer, America’s Captives: Treatment of POWs from the Revolutionary War to the War on Terror (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010), 96 (45,000).

298 As many as 32,899: Dora L. Costa & Matthew E. Kahn, Heroes & Cowards: The Social Face of War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 126.

298 Three quarters of the patients . . . 12,912 men: Springer, America’s Captives, 96.

299 “when the animal is excited”: Norton Parker Chipman, The Tragedy of Andersonville: Trial of Captain Henry Wirz, the Prison Keeper (San Francisco: Blair Murdock Co., 2nd ed., 1911), 106.

299 the trial got off to: Ibid., 28–30; Lewis L. Laska & James M. Smith, “ ‘Hell and the Devil’: Andersonville and the Trial of Capt. Henry Wirz, CSA, 1865,” Military Law Review 68 (Spring 1975): 77, 101.

299 But Wirz’s two lawyers both: Trial of Henry Wirz, House Exec. Doc. no. 23, 40th Cong., 2nd sess., p. 9 (1866).

299 threatened to walk off the case: “The Trial of Captain Henry Wirz,” American State Trials (St. Louis: F. H. Thomas Law Book Co., 1917), 8: 657, 691, 744.

299 arrested James Duncan: American State Trials, 8: 730; Joshua E. Kastenberg, Law in War, War as Law: Brigadier General Joseph Holt and the Judge Advocate General’s Department in the Civil War and Early Reconstruction, 1861–1865 (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2011), 258–59.

299 sought to call Robert Ould: Kastenberg, Law in War, War as Law, 259.

299 A court reporter delivered: American State Trials, 8: 741 & n.

299 instances of abuse by Wirz: E.g., ibid., 8: 704–05, 718–19, 729–30, 734.

300 to the attention of Richmond officials: OR, series 2, 8: 111 American State Trials, 8: 713, 732, 739.

300 to improve the camp bakery . . . improve the water quality: Chipman, The Tragedy of Andersonville, 115–16; William Best Hesseltine, Civil War Prisons: A Study in War Psychology (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1930), 139–40; Marvel,Andersonville: The Last Depot, 80; see also OR, series 2, 7: 167–68, 207, 521.

300 “a servant and instrument”: American State Trials, 8: 682.

300 “tool of monsters”: OR, series 2, 8: 793.

300 “in their present condition”: American State Trials, 8: 717; Chipman, The Tragedy of Andersonville, 115.

300 Even Winder: Futch, History of Andersonville, 75.

300 died of a heart attack: Arch Frederic Blakey, General John H. Winder, C.S.A. (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1990), 201.

300 Death rates in northern camps: See Roger Pickenpaugh, Captives in Gray: The Civil War Prisons of the Union (Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 2009).

301 worked to turn the attention back: The Demon of Andersonville or, the Trial of Wirz for the Cruel Treatment and Brutal Murder of Helpless Union Prisoners in His Hands (Philadelphia: Barclay & Co., 1865), 107.

301 “where the responsibility rested”: American State Trials, 8: 749.

301 “rather as a demon”: OR, series 2, 8: 781.

301–302 expanding the use of military commissions: OR, series 2, 8: 782–83; Mary Bernard Allen, Joseph Holt, Judge Advocate General, 1862–1875: A Study in the Treatment of Political Prisoners by the United States Government During the Civil War. PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1927, 146–47; Leonard, Lincoln’s Avengers, 161.

302 “Where do you make the distinction”: The Trial of John Yates Beall as a Spy and Guerrillero, 65.

302 it lacked jurisdiction to prosecute: Kastenberg, Law in War, War as Law, 262–64.

302 acquitted Confederate general Hugh W. Mercer: OR, series 2, 8: 871.

302 Major John H. Gee: “Major John H. Gee,” Daily National Intelligencer (Washington, DC), June 27, 1866.

302 worse even than at Andersonville: Costa & Kahn, Heroes & Cowards, 149.

303 James Duncan . . . a commission: OR, series 2, 8: 926–28.

303 When Duncan escaped: Robert Scott Davis, “An Historical Note on ‘The Devil’s Advocate’: O. S. Baker and the Henry Wirz/Andersonville Military Tribunal,” Journal of Southern Legal History 10 (2002): 25, 55 n. 46.

303 Grant insisted: Kastenberg, Law in War, War as Law, 265.

303 Wirz’s lawyers had made: American State Trials, 8: 681.

303 Grant successfully prevented: Kastenberg, Law in War, War as Law, 266–67.

303 “the terms of the parole”: Ibid.

303 the formal end of the insurrection: Richardson, 6: 429–32.

303 “seemed like skipping”: Kastenberg, Law in War, War as Law, 261.

303 “no responsibility”: “The Acquittal of Major Gee,” Boston Daily Advertiser, September 4, 1866.

304 President Johnson had been appointing: Richardson, 6: 312–14; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 183–216.

304 “Siamese twins”: Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st sess., 523; Foner, Reconstruction, 243–47.

305 “status of the rebel States”: Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st sess., 24.

305 “Unless the law of nations”: Ibid., 73.

305 “views on this point coincide”: Ibid., 117.

305 would preclude prosecuting any: Ibid., 121.

305 would characterize: Ibid., 121.

305 Yet the most commonly cited alternative: William M. Wiecek, The Guarantee Clause of the U.S. Constitution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972); Bruce Ackerman, We The People 2: Transformations (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1998), 168.

306 President Johnson had relied on the clause: Richardson, 6: 312.

306 open-ended federal government intervention: Michael Les Benedict, A Compromise of Principle: Congressional Republicans and Reconstruction 1863–1869 (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1974), 215, 413 n. 29; Michael Les Benedict, “Preserving the Constitution: The Conservative Basis of Radical Reconstruction,” Journal of American History 61 (1974): 65, 66–76.

306 “hold the other in the grasp”: Benedict, Compromise of Principle, 125.

307 “the sovereign may exercise”: Samuel Shapiro, Richard Henry Dana, Jr., 1815–1882 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1961), 119.

307 “the same national authority”: The Works of Charles Sumner (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1870–83), 9: 425.

307 “null and void”: Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st sess., 39, 41.

307 “The men who went into rebellion”: Benedict, “Preserving the Constitution,” 76.

307 an early champion: Herman Belz, Reconstructing the Union: Theory and Policy During the Civil War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969), 10.

308 prosecution of Confederate naval officer: Diary of Gideon Welles, 2: 471–77.

308 “wished to put no more in Holt’s control”: Ibid., 2: 423.

308 “dupe of his own imaginings”: Ibid., 2: 423.

308 “arbitrary tribunals”: Richardson, 6: 399.

308 “are in time of peace dangerous”: Ibid., 6: 432.

308 prosecution of rebel captain Richard B. Winder: OR, series 2, 8: 887–88.

308 Holt confidently insisted: OR, series 2, 8: 890–92.

308 a citizen of Indiana named Lambdin Milligan: Samuel Klaus, ed., The Milligan Case (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1929), 27–35.

309 for conspiring against . . . and violating the laws of war: Ibid., 74–81.

309 “an inhabitant, resident”: Ibid., 66.

309 “in full exercise of their functions”: Ibid., 122.

309 “the laws of war”: Ibid., 140.

310 “take and kill”: Ibid., 124.

310 “dark and bloody machinery”: Ibid., 146.

310 “all peace provisions” . . . “by civilized nations”: Ibid., 91, 90.

310 “all municipal institutions”: Ibid., 215.

310 “all the powers incident” . . . “liberty, property, and life”: Ibid., 222.

310 Observers of the case: See, e.g., Professor Curtis A. Bradley’s excellent “The Story of Ex parte Milligan: Military Trials, Enemy Combatants, and Congressional Authorization,” in Christopher H. Schroeder & Curtis A. Bradley, eds., Presidential Power Stories (New York: Thomson Reuters / Foundation Press, 2009), 93, 120.

311 a judge in Florida ruled: Ex parte Mudd, 17 F. Cas. 954 (S. D. Fla. 1868).

311 grandson’s challenge to the accuracy: Mudd v. Caldera, 134 F. Supp. 2d 138 (D.D.C. 2001).

312 claimed (wrongly) that Lincoln never: Willard L. King, Lincoln’s Manager: David Davis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960), 254. As president, Lincoln anticipated that commissions would try civilians in his September 1862 suspension of the writ of habeas corpus (Basler, 5: 436–37), and reaffirmed the practice just two weeks before he died (ibid., 8: 359–60). He defended the practice in a long letter on the Vallandigham case (ibid., 6: 303). And he routinely reviewed civilians’ convictions by military commission without apparent objection to the practice (e.g., ibid., 8: 180, 198, 211, 224, 251, 270, 303, and 326). See Mark E. Neely, Jr., The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 165–66.

312 “equally in war and in peace”: Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2, 120 (1865).

312 “If he cannot enjoy”: Milligan, 71 U.S. at 131.

313 “the locality of actual war”: Milligan, 71 U.S. at 127.

313 likened the ruling to the Dred Scott decision: Charles Fairman, History of the Supreme Court of the United States, Vol. 6: Reconstruction and Reunion, 1864–88 (New York: Macmillan, 1971), 1: 213–14, 232.

313 Milligan was worse: Hans L. Trefousse, Thaddeus Stevens: Nineteenth-Century Egalitarian (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 205.

313 “assailed the Union”: Bradley, “Story of Ex parte Milligan,” 117.

313 “the revolutionary proceedings”: Fairman, Reconstruction and Reunion, 1: 215.

313 “scenes of bloodshed”: Benjamin R. Curtis, Executive Power (Boston: Little, Brown, 1862), 13.

313 Now it was Curtis to whom: Fairman, Reconstruction and Reunion, 235–36. An aging Curtis pleaded illness and overwork and declined to take up Davis’s suggestion.

313 the Joint Committee on Reconstruction: Foner, Reconstruction, 253.

313 the House and the Senate proposed: Stat., 14: 358–59.

313–14 all but one of the white southern: Joseph B. James, The Ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1984), 19–24; David E. Kyvig, Explicit & Authentic Acts: Amending the U.S. Constitution, 1776–1995 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995), 170–71.

314 Race riots: Foner, Reconstruction, 261–63.

314 Military Reconstruction Act: Stat., 14: 428–29.

314 his theory of the power of conquerors: Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 2nd sess., 1076.

314 “unlimited power for the common defense”: Ibid., 1082.

314 Zachariah Chandler: Ibid., 1135.

314 William D. Kelley: Ibid., 1177.

314 expressly authorized military commissions: Stat., 14: 428, §3.

315 In a blistering opinion: AG Opinions, 12: 182, 198–200 (June 12, 1867).

315 “only until the people”: Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 2nd sess., 1212.

315 Tenure of Office Act: Act Regulating the Tenure of Certain Civil Officers, Stat., 14: 430–32.

315 A rider to the annual appropriations act: An Act Making Appropriations for the Support of the Army, Stat., 14: 485, 486–87 §2.

316 More than 1,000 defendants: Neely, Fate of Liberty, 176–77.

316 under the shadow of Lambdin Milligan: At least two lower federal courts discharged men convicted by military commissions—see Detlev Vagts, “Military Commissions: A Concise History,” American Journal of International Law 101 (January 2007): 35, 40 n. 35.

316 William McCardle: Daniel Meltzer, “The Story of Ex parte McCardle: The Power of Congress to Limit the Supreme Court’s Appellate Jurisdiction,” in Vicki C. Jackson & Judith Resnik, eds., Federal Court Stories (New York: Foundation Press, 2010), 57–86.

316 by repealing the statute: An Act to Amend an Act Entitled “An Act to Amend the Judiciary Act Passed the Twenty-Fourth of September, Seventeen Hundred and Eighty-Nine,” Stat., 15: 44 (repealing Stat., 14: 385).

316 The Court reluctantly upheld: Ex parte McCardle, 74 U.S. 506, 514–15 (1868).

316 Edward Yerger: Fairman, Reconstruction and Reunion, 1: 558–91.

317 “Induce . . . the President to return”: FL to Charles Sumner, April 4, 1865, box 45, FLP HL.

317 “My God!”: FL to Henry Halleck, April 15, 1865, box 28, FLP HL.

317 ought to be tried for treason: FL to Charles Sumner, April 1, 1865, box 45, FLP HL.

317 Lieber traveled to Washington: Frank Freidel, Francis Lieber: Nineteenth-Century Liberal (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1947), 369–70.

318 the leading statement of the law: “The Status of Rebel Prisoners of War,” in The Miscellaneous Writings of Francis Lieber (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1881), 293–97; see also The Civil Status of Paroled Rebels After the Pacification of the Country, folder 30, box 2, FLP JHU.

318 “committed crimes”: Lieber, “Status of Rebel Prisoners of War,” 294.

318 “look like positive distrust”: A Memorandum: Reasons Why Jefferson Davis Ought Not to Be Tried by Military Commission for Complicity in the Unlawful Raiding, Burning, Etc. (July 1865), folder 33, box 2, FLP JHU.

318 “most calamitous”: Diary of Gideon Welles, 2: 337–40.

318 a May 2 proclamation: Richardson, 6: 307–08.

319 to go into the Confederate archives: OR, series 3, 5: 95.

319 428 boxes, 69 barrels: Dallas Irvine, “The Archive Office of the War Department: Repository of Captured Confederate Archives, 1865–1881,” Military Affairs 10, no. 1 (Spring 1946): 93, 98.

319 “plots of assassination”: Carl L. Lokke, “The Captured Confederate Records Under Francis Lieber,” American Archivist 9, no. 4 (1946): 277, 279.

319 “to allow no person”: Ibid., 292–93, 305.

319 “emanated from or was countenanced by”: FL to Henry Halleck, April 26, 1865, box 28, FLP HL.

319 for use in the trial of John Gee: Lokke, “Captured Confederate Records,” 305.

319 between Davis and Confederate agents: E.g., FL to Joseph Holt, September 15, 1865, JHP LC.

319 proposing an assassination plot: House Report No. 104, 39th Cong., 1st sess. (1866), pp. 24–25; Lokke, “Captured Confederate Records,” 310.

320 a January 1866 report to Stanton: Lokke, “Captured Confederate Records,” 302 n. 109.

320 unable to identify anything: Leonard, Lincoln’s Avengers, 216; also Francis Lieber, Report of the Chief of the Archive Office, MSS 17,814, PEMS LC.

320 Boutwell’s report: House Report No. 104, 39th Cong., 1st sess. (1866), p. 1.

320 “The trial of Jeff. Davis”: FL to Henry Halleck, May 19, 1866, box 28, FLP HL.

320 would have to take place in Virginia: AG Opinions, 11: 411–13.

320 refused to sit in the Circuit Court: Roy Franklin Nichols, “United States vs. Jefferson Davis, 1865–1869,” American Historical Review 31, no. 2 (January 1926), 266, 267–68.

321 an abolitionist judge: Nichols, “United States vs. Jefferson Davis,” 268 & 268 n. 7.

321 had failed to assign justices: Fairman, Reconstruction and Reunion, 1: 608.

321 one last amnesty proclamation: Richardson, 6: 708.

322 “acceptance of the rules” . . . “legitimate conflict”: Bradley T. Johnson, ed., Reports of Cases Decided by Chief Justice Chase in the Circuit Court of the United States for the Fourth Circuit During the Years 1865 to 1869 (New York: Diossy & Co., 1876), 13–14.

322 “Our case is double”: The Works of Charles Sumner (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1870–83), 7: 13.

323 “no life was forfeited”: James G. Randall, Constitutional Problems Under Lincoln (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1926), 91.

323 a new species of offense: Francis Lieber, Memorandum, folder 33, box 2, FLP JHU.

Part III The Howling Desert

325 Epigraph: John M. Schofield, “Notes on ‘The Legitimate’ in War,” Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States 2 (1881): 1, 3.

Chapter 11. Glenn’s Brigade

327 “No modern state”: Trials or Courts-Martial in the Philippine Islands in Consequence of Certain Instructions, Senate Doc. no. 213, 57th Cong., 2nd sess. (1903), 42.

327 “Terrible!”: “Impending Changes in the Character of War,” Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States 19 (1896): 83, 88.

327 died suddenly: Thomas Sergeant Perry, The Life and Letters of Francis Lieber (Boston: James R. Osgood & Co., 1882), 430.

327 launched General Orders No. 100: E.g., FL to Henry Halleck, October 4, 1863, box 28, FLP HL.

327 “Old Hundred”: E.g., FL to Henry Halleck, May 28, 1866, box 28, FLP HL

327 Bluntschli . . . translated the code: Dr. Bluntschli, Das moderne Kriegsrecht der civilisirten Staten als Rechtsbuch dargestellt (Nördligen: C. H. Beck’schen Buchhandlung, 1866).

328 influential German code: Betsy Baker Röben, Johann Caspar Bluntschli, Francis Lieber und das moderne Völkerrecht 1861–1881 (Baden-Baden: NOMOS Verlagsgesellschaft, 2003); Theodor Meron, “Francis Lieber’s Code and Principles of Humanity,”Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 36 (1997): 269; Betsy Baker Roben, “The Method Behind Bluntschli’s ‘Modern’ International Law,” Journal of the History of International Law 4 (2002): 249–92.

328 unfinished manuscript: Untitled MS, box 3, Papers of Brig. General Norman Lieber, 1867–1898, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General, record group 153, NARA.

328 stint in the Department of Dakota: Report of the Secretary of War, House Exec. Doc. no. 1, 41st Cong., 2nd sess., part 2, vol. 1 (1870), p. 41.

328 teaching the laws of war: Robert Wolfe, “Francis Lieber’s Role as Archivist of the Confederate Records,” in Charles R. Mack & Henry H. Lesesne, eds., Francis Lieber and the Culture of the Mind (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2005), 42, 46.

328 became acting judge advocate general: The Army Lawyer: A History of the Judge Advocate General’s Corps, 1775–1975 (Washington, DC: U.S. Judge Advocate General’s Department, 1975), 83–86; William Fratcher, “History of the Judge Advocate General’s Corps, United States Army,” Military Law Review 4 (1959): 88, 98–99.

328 On April 11, 1873: For my account of the Modoc episode, I have relied on Keith A. Murray, The Modocs and Their War (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959); Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier, 1846–1890 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2003); and the documents and scholarship cited below.

329 600 soldiers under: J. F. Santee, “Edward R. S. Canby, Modoc War, 1873,” Oregon Historical Quarterly 33 (1932): 70, 74.

329 “You are like an old squaw”: Francis S. Landrum, Guardhouse, Gallows, and Graves: The Trial and Execution of Indian Prisoners of the Modoc Indian War by the U.S. Army, 1873 (Klamath Falls, OR: Klamath County Museum, 1998), 128.

329 “utter extermination”: “The Modoc Massacre: Extermination of the Tribe Justified,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 15, 1873.

329 ordered a pontoon bridge: Joseph T. Glatthaar, The March to the Sea and Beyond: Sherman’s Troops in the Savannah and Carolina Campaigns (New York: New York University Press, 1985), 64.

329 “shoot the leaders”: Murray, Modocs and Their War, 276.

330 “no desire to stay the hand”: “New York Press Comments on the Modoc Massacre,” Augusta Chronicle, April 16, 1873.

330 “be exterminated”: “New York Press Comments on the Modoc Massacre,” Augusta Chronicle, April 16, 1873.

330 But as Davis drew up: Jefferson Davis to HQ, S.F.P. [San Francisco Presidio], June 5, 1873, vol. 3, #217, part 1, entry 706: Letters and Telegrams Sent, 1870–1902, Department of the Columbia, record group 393, NARA; Landrum, Guardhouse, Gallows, and Graves, 21–22.

330 would no longer enter into treaties: Nell Jessup Newton et al., Cohen’s Handbook of Federal Indian Law (Newark, NJ: LexisNexis, 2005), §1.03, p. 75.

330 in modern organized sovereign states: Instructions, art. 20; see also art. 25, 29, and 30.

330 the Dakota Indians in Minnesota: My account of the Dakota Sioux episode of 1862 relies on Carol Chomsky, “The United States–Dakota War Trials: A Study in Military Injustice,” Stanford Law Review 43, no. 1 (1990): 13–98; and Maeve Herbert, “Explaining the Sioux Military Commission of 1862,” Columbia Human Rights Law Review 40 (2009): 743–98.

330 “as maniacs or wild beasts”: Chomsky, “Dakota War Trials,” 23.

330 “Nits”: Herbert, “Sioux Military Commission,” 767.

331 “Daniel Boone”: Ibid., 791.

331 On the first day . . . it sentenced to death: Chomsky, “Dakota War Trials,” 25–28.

332 executed Indians with an ax: See chapter 1.

332 without even the pretense: See chapter 3.

332 “Kill the nits”: John W. Hall, Uncommon Defense: Indian Allies in the Black Hawk War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 1.

332 As recently as the 1850s: Herbert, “Sioux Military Commission,” 755–56.

332 some commanders in Missouri: Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri During the American Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 86–87; Daniel E. Sutherland, A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 123.

332 In the Oregon Territory: Herbert, “Sioux Military Commission,” 756–57.

333 “their aiders and abettors”: Basler, 5: 436–37.

333 even if Indians inflicted it: FL to Henry Halleck, April 19, 1864, box 28, FLP HL; Law and Usages of War, No. IV, 17 December 1861 [Notebook No. 4], folder 16, box 2, FLP JHU.

333 as much like “barbarians”: Herbert, “Sioux Military Commission,” 778 n. 178.

333 “who have laid down”: Ibid., 779–80 n. 180.

333 by applying a principle drawn: Basler, 5: 542–43; Chomsky, “Dakota War Trials,” 32, 89.

333 named Wowinape: Chomsky, “Dakota War Trials,” 41–43.

334 “technical difficulty”: Ibid., 42.

334 General John M. Schofield: Murray, Modocs and Their War, 272–73.

334 personalized copy of General Orders: OR, series 1, 22 (part 2): 292.

334 Attorney General George Henry Williams: Leonard Schlup, “George Henry Williams,” American National Biography Online, February 2000.

334 established legal authority for military commissions: Modoc War: Message from the President of the United States, Transmitting Copies of the Correspondence and Papers Relative to the War with the Modoc Indians in Southern Oregon and Northern California, During the Years 1872 and 1873, February 10, 1874, House Exec. Doc. no. 122, 43d Cong., 1st sess. (1874), pp. 88–90.

335 “I thought to avoid”: Landrum, Guardhouse, Gallows, and Graves, 18.

335 murder in violation . . . each of them to death: Modoc War, House Exec. Doc. no. 122, pp. 133–35, 181–83.

335 “Everything connected with the execution”: Ludlow, Guardhouse, Gallows, and Graves, 74–75.

335 President Grover Cleveland expressed the hope: Letter from the Secretary of War, Transmitting, In response to Resolution of February 11, 1887, Correspondence with General Miles Relative to the Surrender of Geronimo, Senate Exec. Doc. no. 117, 49th Cong., 2nd sess. (1887), p. 4.

335 should be tried and punished: Letter from the Secretary of War, Senate Exec. Doc. no. 117, p. 10.

335 General O. O. Howard objected: Ibid., p. 12.

335 forced to ask Geronimo himself: Ibid., pp. 21–22.

336 a prisoner of war status like few others: John Anthony Turcheneske, Jr., The Chiricahua Apache Prisoners of War: Fort Sill 1894–1914 (Niwot, CO.: University Press of Colorado, 1997); H. Henrietta Stockel, Survival of the Spirit: Chiricahua Apaches in Captivity (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1993); Peter Aleshire, The Fox and the Whirlwind: General George Crook and Geronimo (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000); Odie B. Faulk, The Geronimo Campaign (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 210–12; Frederick Turner, ed., Geronimo: His Own Story, as Told to S. M. Barrett (New York: Meridian, 1970).

336 The sixty-nine Dakota Sioux acquitted: Chomsky, “Dakota War Trials,” 28.

336 establishment of a school in Carlisle: Richard H. Pratt, “Violated Principles the Cause of Failure in Indian Civilization,” Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States 7 (1886): 46, 58–60.

336 the indefinite detention: G. Norman Lieber to Adjutant General, August 26, 1893, Letters Sent (“Record Books”), 1889–1895, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), 1792–2010, record group 153, NARA.

336 “Kill and scalp all”: Katie Kane, “Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination,” Cultural Critique 42 (1999): 81, 82–84; see also Stan Hoig, The Sand Creek Massacre (Norman, OK: Oklahoma University Press, 1961).

337 the peculiarity of the legal status: AG Opinions, 13: 470, 472.

337 “the blessing of a knowledge”: “Laws of War in Ashantee,” New York Times, April 20, 1884; see also Sunday Oregonian (Portland), July 6, 1884. On Howard, see Richard N. Ellis, “The Humanitarian Generals,” Western Historical Quarterly 3, no. 2 (1972): 169, 169–72.

337 Some historians have argued: See Lance Janda, “Shutting the Gates of Mercy: The American Origins of Total War, 1860–1880,” Journal of Military History 59, no. 1 (1995): 7–26; and Harry Stout, Upon the Altar of the Nation: A Moral History of the Civil War (New York: Penguin Books, 2007), 460.

337 Others object: Mark E. Neely, Jr., The Civil War and the Limits of Destruction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007); Mark Grimsley, The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy Toward Southern Civilians, 1861–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

337 “only good Indians”: Wolfgang Mieder, “ ‘The Only Good Indian Is a Dead Indian’: History and Meaning of a Proverbial Stereotype,” Journal of American Folklore 106, no. 419 (Winter 1993): 38, 45–46.

337 “During the war”: Letter from the Secretary of War in Answer to a Resolution of the House, of March 3, 1870, in Relation to the Late Expedition Against the Piegan Indians, in the Territory of Montana, House Ex. Doc. no. 269, 41st Cong., 2nd sess., p. 70.

338 Robert K. Evans . . . stern vision of the 1863 code: Robert K. Evans, “The Indian Question in Arizona,” Atlantic Monthly (August 1886): 171–73.

338 banker named Henri Dunant: Caroline Moorehead, Dunant’s Dream: War, Switzerland, and the History of the Red Cross (London: HarperCollins, 1998), 2–7.

339 In Great Britain: Mark Bostridge, Florence Nightingale: The Making of an Icon (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2008).

339 Ferdinando Palasciano: Moorehead, Dunant’s Dream, 27.

339 Henri Arrault: Ibid., 26.

339 founded a Sanitary Commission: Charles J. Stillé, History of the United States Sanitary Commission: Being the General Report of Its Work During the War of the Rebellion (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1866).

339 a stunning exposé: J. Henry Dunant, A Memory of Solferino (Washington, DC: American Red Cross, 1939), (trans. of the 1862 French original).

340 The first Geneva Convention: Bevans, 1: 7–11; see Martha Finnemore, National Interests in International Society (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996), 69–88.

340 “Am I not the man”: FL to Charles Sumner, June 20 & 21, 1864, box 44, FLP HL; see also FL to Charles Sumner, June 24, 1864, box 44, FLP HL; FL to Henry Halleck, June 18, 1864, and June 25, 1864, box 28, FLP HL.

340 A skeletal delegation: Report of Charles S. P. Bowles, Foreign Agent of the United States Sanitary Commission Upon the International Congress of Geneva (London: R. Clay, Son, & Taylor, 1864).

340 “Our No. 100”: FL to Henry Halleck, June 18, 1864, box 28, FLP HL.

340 Henry Raymond: Francis Brown, Raymond of the Times (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1951), 167–79. On the press and humanitarianism, see Gary J. Bass, Freedom’s Battle: The Origins of Humanitarian Intervention (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), 35–37.

340 War photographers: Susan Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2003), 48–58.

340 given way to vast mobilizations: David A. Bell, The First Total War: Napoleon’s Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2007).

341 Improved rifling technology: Compare John Keegan, A History of Warfare (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), 342–43, describing the tight formations of eighteenth-century musket tactics, with Max Boot, War Made New: Weapons, Warriors, and the Making of the Modern World (New York: Gotham Books, 2007), 127–28, describing the rise of rifled barrels and the dispersion of troops that followed, though only after terrible lessons were inflicted on hundreds of thousands of soldiers.

341 as evidence of just such moral progress: Charles Loring Brace, Gesta Christi: or, A History of Humane Progress Under Christianity (New York: A. C. Armstrong & Son, 1883), 335; Richard S. Storrs, The Divine Origin of Christianity, Indicated by Its Historical Effects (New York: Anson D. F. Randolph & Co., 1884), 204, 521.

341 “the very moral sentiment”: Sheldon Amos, Political and Legal Remedies for War (London: Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co., 1880), 336.

341 turned men into murderers: Dunant, Memory of Solferino, 28.

341 “La civilisation de la guerre”: Geoffrey Best, Humanity in Warfare (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), 10.

341 The militarists of Prussia: Geoffrey Wawro, War and Society in Europe, 1792–1914 (London: Routledge, 2000), 77.

342 120 different networks: Moorehead, Dunant’s Dream, 53.

342 James “Jingo Jim” Blaine: Clara Barton, The Red Cross: A History of This Remarkable International Movement in the Interest of Humanity (Washington, DC: American National Red Cross, 1898), 36–45.

342 “perpetual peace” . . . “speedy conclusion”: Count von Moltke to Johan Caspar Bluntschli, December 11, 1880, reprinted in Thomas Erskine Holland, ed., Letters to The Times Upon War and Neutrality, 1881–1909 (New York: Longmans Green, 2nd ed., 1914), 25–26.

342 “it was impossible both”: Peter Holquist, The Russian Empire as a “Civilized State”: International Law as Principle and Practice in Imperial Russia, 1874–1878. National Council for Eurasian and East European Research Working Paper, July 14, 2006, pp. 13–14 (available at http://www.nceer.org/papers).

342 the dense thicket of European rivalries: Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, Transmitted to Congress with the Annual Message of the President, December 6, 1875, House Exec. Doc. no. 1, part 1, vol. 2, 44th Cong., 1st sess., pp. 1014–46; [Brussels Conference], New York Herald, July 28, 1874; Martin Aust, “Western European and German Perceptions of Fedor Martens and Russian Developments in the Field of International Law (1870s to 1900s).” Paper presented to the American Historical Association Conference, New York, New York, January 2009; Geoffrey Best, “Restraints on War by Land Before 1945,” in Michael Howard, ed., Restraints on War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 33–34; Calvin deArmond Davis,The United States and the First Hague Peace Conference (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1962), 38–44.

343 Berlin: FL to Henry Halleck, October 4, 1863, box 28, FLP HL (Heffter); Frank Freidel, Francis Lieber: Nineteenth-Century Liberal (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1947), 402.

343 “Professor Dr. Franz Lieber in New-York”: Dr. J. C. Bluntschli, Das moderne Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staten als Rechtsbuch dargestellt (Nördlingen: C. H. Beck’schen Buchhandlung, 1878), iii–iv; see also Bluntschli, Moderne Kriegsrecht, iii (“Professor Lieber in New-York . . . und . . . Präsident Lincoln).

343 He cited Lieber as inspiring: Martti Koskenniemi, The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law, 1870–1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 42.

343 “war crime,” or Kriegsverbrechen: Bluntschli, Moderne Völkerrecht, §643a, p. 360.

343 Netherlands (1871) . . . Italy (1896): G. I. A. D. Draper, “Implementation of International Law in Armed Conflicts,” International Affairs 48 (1972): 46, 55; War Office, Manual of Military Law (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1894), 303–20; see also Thomas Erskine Holland, Studies in International Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 87 n. 1.

343 by the time of the Russo-Turkish War: Holquist, Russian Empire as a “Civilized State,” 14.

343 “the formation of a practical Manual”: Henry Sumner Maine, International Law: A Series of Lectures Delivered Before the University of Cambridge, 1887 (London: John Murray, 1888), 129.

344 prepared a private draft: V. V. Pustogarov, Our Martens: F. F. Martens International Lawyer and Architect of Peace, ed. & trans W. E. Butler (London: Simmonds & Hill, 2000), 108–09; Holquist, Russian Empire as a “Civilized State,” 12–13 n. 37.

344 as an amended version of Lieber’s work: Holquist, Russian Empire as a “Civilized State,” 12–13.

344 Martens described the parole: Project for an International Convention on the Laws and Customs of War Presented by the Russian Government, in Documents Relating to the Program of the First Hague Peace Conference (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921), §35–36, p. 44.

344 noncombatants who rose up in a territory: Ibid., §45, p. 45.

344 even the execution of prisoners: Ibid., §12 (c), p. 45.

344 “seizure and destruction”: Ibid., §13(b) & (c), p. 45.

344 As humanitarian critics noted: Foreign Relations of the United States, House Exec. Doc. no. 1, part 1, vol. 2, 44th Cong., 1st sess., pp. 1027–29.

344 “to whom does the right”: Holquist, Russian Empire as a “Civilized State,” 13.

345 “in direct subordination”: Ibid., 14–15.

345 Martens adopted Lieber’s functional: Project of an International Declaration Concerning the Laws and Customs of War, Brussels, 27 August 1874, art. 9, available at http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/135?OpenDocument.

345 it has lasted as such: Convention (III) Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva, 12 August 1949, art. 4(A)(2), available at http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/375.

345 “fully aware that”: Meron, “Francis Lieber’s Code,” 271.

346 “strict military obedience”: Robert Seager II, “Alfred Thayer Mahan,” American National Biography Online, http://www.anb.org/articles/05/05-00466.html; Robert Seager II, “Alfred Thayer Mahan: Christian Expansionist, Navalist, and Historian,” in James C. Bradford, ed., Admirals of the New Steel Navy: Makers of the American Naval Tradition, 1880–1930 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1990), 24–72.

347 “a dim religious world”: Philip A. Crowl, “Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Naval Historian,” in Peter Parat, ed., The Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 444.

347 “Step by step”: Alfred Thayer Mahan, Some Neglected Aspects of War (London: Sampson Low, Marston, & Co., 1899), 45.

347 “Power”: Mahan, Some Neglected Aspects, 46; see also p. 107.

347 without undue deference: Ibid., 37–42.

348 Ethan Allen Hitchcock . . . accepted the message: Davis, First Hague Peace Conference, 37–38.

348 electrified peace movements: Ibid., 61; James J. Sheehan, Where Have All the Soldiers Gone? The Transformation of Modern Europe (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2008), 22–34.

348 Mahan saw the czar’s call: Davis, First Hague Peace Conference, 38.

348 “the humanitarian”: Ibid., 42.

348 to slow a European arms race: Ibid., 43–44.

348 “hopeless skepticism”: Andrew D. White, The First Hague Conference (Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1912), 8.

348 seventeenth-century summer palace: Barbara W. Tuchman, The Proud Tower: A Portrait of the World Before the War, 1890–1914 (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 257; Davis, First Hague Peace Conference, 92; Stephen Barcroft, “The Hague Peace Conference of 1899,” Irish Studies in International Affairs 3, no. 1 (1989): 55, 62.

349 they were not to enter into any: James Brown Scott, ed., The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907: A Series of Lectures Delivered Before the Johns Hopkins University in the Year 1908 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1909), 2: 7.

349 Mahan did too: Davis, First Hague Peace Conference, 187; Mahan, Some Neglected Aspects, 25.

349 “to really nothing”: Davis, First Hague Peace Conference, 188.

349 generously credited Lincoln: William I. Hull, The Two Hague Conferences and Their Contributions to International Law (Boston: International School of Peace, 1908), 214–15.

349 distinct advance on the Civil War code: James Brown Scott, ed., Instructions to the American Delegates to the Hague Peace Conferences and Their Official Reports (New York: Oxford University Press, 1916), 46.

350 prohibited prisoner execution: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 29 July 1899, art. 4 & 23(c), available at http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150?.

350 “populations and belligerents”: Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land, [preamble], available at http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150.

350 “heard the opinion expressed”: “Session Is Brief,” Dallas Morning News, June 16, 1907.

350 “when he speaks”: Tuchman, Proud Tower, 267.

350 “doubtful if wars” . . . “inventive genius”: Scott, ed., Instructions to the American Delegates, 7.

351 White was no lightweight: See Andrew D. White, The Autobiography of Andrew Dickson White (New York: Century, 1905).

351 an inventor of artillery devices: Davis, First Hague Peace Conference, 75.

351 he had to order copies: Ibid., 132.

351 New technologies: Tuchman, Proud Tower, 262.

351 dumdum bullets could stop: Davis, First Hague Peace Conference, 121.

351 “wounds of useless cruelty”: Scott, ed., Hague Peace Conferences, 2: 33–35; Scott, ed., Instructions to the American Delegates, 29.

352 “would prove to be rather harmful”: White, First Hague Conference, 40.

352 “tender about asphyxiating”: Scott, ed., Hague Peace Conferences, 2: 37; see also Robert Seager II & Doris D. Maguire, eds., Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1975), 2: 642, 650–51.

352 Though White initially opposed: Davis, First Hague Peace Conference, 119.

352 to push for the immunity of private property at sea: Scott, ed., Instructions to the American Delegates, 9.

352 Mahan was violently opposed: Alfred T. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1890), 539–40; Seager & Maguire, eds., Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, 3: 112–13, 157, and also 2: 638.

352 even resisted the old American position: Seager, Alfred Thayer Mahan, 28.

352 persuaded President Theodore Roosevelt: Richard W. Turk, The Ambiguous Relationship: Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Thayer Mahan (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 135–36.

353 “limited liability”: Calvin DeArmond Davis, The United States and the Second Hague Peace Conference: American Diplomacy and International Organization, 1899–1914 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1975), 140, 171.

353 it required its signatory states: Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land, art. 1.

353 as ratification of the kinds of global power: Stuart Creighton Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation”: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982), 7; also Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 170–216.

353 “divinely commissioned”: Stanley Karnow, In Our Image: America’s Empire in the Philippines (New York: Random House, 1989), 81.

354 “a war for liberty”: Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 102.

354 millions of nonwhite people: Christina Burnett & Burke Marshall, eds., Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion, and the Constitution (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001).

354 longed for a coaling station: Turk, Ambiguous Relationship, 36.

354 irredeemable savages: Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 124–28.

354 “a civilized”: Paul A. Kramer, “Race-Making and Colonial Violence in the U.S. Empire: The Philippine-American War as Race War,” Diplomatic History 30, no. 2 (April 2006): 169, 181.

354 the United States’ intent to cooperate: Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, & the Philippines (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 94–96.

354 a combination of untruths: Ibid., 94–111.

354 who admired the combat tactics: Ibid., 76.

354 resistance to Spain and the Boer War against the British: Ibid., 131.

354 often horrific: E.g., Karnow, In Our Own Image, 190–91.

355 used poison and killed: Trials or Courts-Martial in the Philippine Islands in Consequence of Certain Instructions, Senate Doc. no. 213, 57th Cong., 2nd sess. (1903), 9.

355 filling reports with hundreds: Charges of cruelty, etc., to the natives of the Philippines. Letter from the Secretary of War relative to the reports and charges in the public press of cruelty and oppression exercised by our soldiers toward natives of the Philippines. February 19, 1902, Senate Doc. no. 205, 57th Cong., 1st sess.

355 “the brains of the revolution”: Karnow, In Our Own Image, 116.

355 “when it comes to defending”: Kramer, “Race-Making and Colonial Violence,” 199; see also Kramer, The Blood of Government, 134–36.

355 began to trickle back: Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 88.

355 between 1,500 and 2,000 Filipinos: Ibid., 154.

355 epidemics struck: Kramer, Blood of Government, 157.

355 disguised in the uniforms: Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 167–70.

356 “to kill and burn”: Kramer, Blood of Government, 145.

356 “must be made”: Trials or Courts-Martial in the Philippine Islands, Doc. no. 213, 57th Cong., 2nd sess., pp. 6–7.

356 hanged Filipino prisoners by the neck: Affairs in the Philippine Islands. Hearings Before the Committee on the Philippines of the United States Senate. Senate Doc. no. 331, 57th Cong., 1st sess., part 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1902), 901–02.

356 known as the water cure: See Paul A. Kramer’s brilliant article, “The Water Cure,” The New Yorker, January 25, 2008.

356 While three or four soldiers: Richard E. Welch, Jr., “American Atrocities in the Philippines: The Indictment and the Response,” Pacific Historical Review 43, no. 2 (1974): 233, 235.

356 salt water . . . or a syringe: Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 251; Kramer, The Blood of Government, 201.

356 resulted in the death of the victim: Judge Advocate General George B. Davis to Secretary of War Elihu Root, Nov. 17, 1902, file 12291, box 63, Office of the Judge Advocate General Document File, 1894–1912, record group 153, NARA.

356 fourteen instances: Welch, “American Atrocities in the Philippines,” 234.

356 administered the water cure: Affairs in the Philippine Islands. Hearings Before the Committee on the Philippines of the United States Senate. Senate Doc. no. 331, 57th Cong., 1st sess., part 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1902), 951.

356 Nelson A. Miles . . . heard complaints: Welch, “American Atrocities in the Philippines,” 236–37.

356 seen the water cure administered: E.g., Trials or Courts-Martial in the Philippine Islands, Senate Doc. no. 213, 57th Cong., 1st sess., 114, 119.

356 “Get the good old syringe”: Kramer, The Blood of Government, 141.

357 “so called water cure”: Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 213.

357 Norman Lieber had arranged: Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1898), in box 2, Papers of Brig. General Norman Lieber, 1867–1898, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General, record group 153, NARA.

357 presided over a new series: See A Complete List of Prisoners Under the Control of the Civil Government of the Philippine Islands, Who were tried and sentenced by General Courts-Martial, Provost Courts and by Military Commissions and Who were in Confinement in Bilibid Prison on the 1st Day of January, 1904, file no. 17546, box 90, Office of the Judge Advocate General Document File, 1894–1912, record group 153, NARA.

357 unlawfully furnishing supplies . . . and murder: Memorandum in regard to Trials of Filipinos by Military Commissions for cruelty against soldiers, January 1, 1900 to December 31, 1901, file 12291, box 63, Office of the Judge Advocate General Document File, 1894–1912, record group 153, NARA.

357 more than 300 enlisted men: Memorandum in regard to trials by courts-martial and military commissions of persons in or connected with the Army in the Philippine Islands for offenses against natives, file 12291, box 63, Office of the Judge Advocate General Document File, 1894–1912, record group 153, NARA.

357 Arthur MacArthur: Annual Report of Maj. Gen. Arthur MacArthur . . . Military Governor in the Philippine Islands, in Annual Reports of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1901, Report of the Lieutenant-General Commanding the Army, House Doc. no. 2, 57th Cong., 1st sess., part 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1901), 91–92.

357 conformed to the terms of Old Hundred: Orders and Instructions Issued to Military Officers in the Philippines, House Doc. no. 596, 57th Cong., 1st sess. (1902), 1.

357 “form part of the ‘Instructions’”: William E. Birkhimer, Military Government and Martial Law (Kansas City: Franklin Hudson Publishing Co., 1914), 614.

357 Schofield argued openly: John M. Schofield, “Notes on ‘The Legitimate’ in War,” Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States 2 (1881): 1, 1.

357 “squeamish humanity”: “What War Means,” Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States 20 (1897); 34, 36.

357 international law’s formal moral symmetry: Schofield, “Notes on ‘The Legitimate,’” 5–6.

358 “no objective point” . . . “too many men”: “Impending Changes in the Character of War,” Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States 19 (1896): 83, 88.

358 no claims on the laws of war: Kramer, The Blood of Government, 146–47.

358 even tougher than Lincoln’s: Annual Report of Maj. Gen. Arthur MacArthur, 91–92; Kramer, The Blood of Government, 136.

358 “A short and severe war”: Kramer, The Blood of Government, 154.

358 “wage war in the sharpest”: Annual Reports of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1902 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1902), 9: 208–09.

359 giving no quarter to prisoners: Trials or Courts-Martial in the Philippine Islands in Consequence of Certain Instructions, Senate Doc. no. 213, 57th Cong., 2nd sess. (1903), p. 11.

359 “study with advantage”: “General Orders No. 100,” Duluth News-Tribune, April 29, 1902.

359 prepared a private defense: Memorandum for the Judge Advocate General, July 8, 1904, file no. 4275, box 23, Office of the Judge Advocate General Document File, 1894–1912, record group 153, NARA.

359 immediately ordered courts-martial: Philip C. Jessup, Elihu Root (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1938), 1: 342.

359 Glenn was a member: “Maj. Gen. E. F. Glenn Will Retire Dec. 31,” New York Times, December 21, 1919.

359 even published a book: Captain Edwin F. Glenn, Hand-Book of International Law (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1895).

359 expedition to southeastern Alaska: Gregg Jones, Honor in the Dust: Theodore Roosevelt, War in the Philippines, and the Rise and Fall of America’s Imperial Dream (New York: New American Library, 2012), 210; Guide to the Edwin F. Glenn Papers, Collection no. HMC-0116, University of Alaska.

359 judge advocate for the island of Panay: Moorfield Storey & Julian Codman, Marked Severities in Philippine Warfare: Secretary Root’s Record—An Analysis of the Law and Facts Bearing on the Action and Utterances of President Roosevelt and Secretary Root (Boston: Geo. H. Ellis Co., 1902), 62.

359 a mobile team of crack: Andrew J. Birtle, U.S. Army Counterinsurgency and Contingency Operations Doctrine, 1860–1941 (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 1998), 118; Brian McAllister Linn, The Philippine War, 1899–1902 (Lawrence, KA: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 253, 315, 319; Kramer, “Water Cure.”

360 “for the purposes of extorting”: Welch, “American Atrocities in the Philippines,” 237.

360 “I am convinced”: “Defended the Water Cure,” New York Times, July 25, 1902.

360 justified by military necessity: Trials or Courts-Martial in the Philippine Islands in Consequence of Certain Instructions, Senate Doc. no. 213, 57th Cong., 2nd sess. (1903), p. 26.

360 “Without firing a shot”: Ibid., p. 85.

361 “No modern state”: Ibid., pp. 27, 42, 70.

361 “so instant and important”: Ibid., pp. 26–27.

361 Roosevelt commuted the sentence: Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 218.

361 Ealdama: Trials or Courts-Martial in the Philippine Islands in Consequence of Certain Instructions, Senate Doc. no. 213, 57th Cong., 2nd sess. (1903), p. 25.

362 “We have been brought”: Congressional Record 35: 5795 (May 22, 1902).

362 Sherman had praised: William Tecumseh Sherman, “Military Law,” Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States 1 (1880): 385, 437.

362 Elihu Root celebrated: Elihu Root, “Francis Lieber,” American Journal of International Law 7, no. 3 (1913): 453–69. Root’s address was delivered by James Brown Scott after Root had to rush home because of the death of a grandchild. See “Plea for Equality of Tolls Is Made,” Oregonian (Portland), April 25, 1913.

362 “almost sacred”: Lt. Col. [Kerr?], General Staff, Acting Chief, First Division, July 8, 1904, file no. 4275, box 23, Office of the Judge Advocate General Document File, 1894–1912, record group 153, NARA.

362 Privately published compilations: Birkhimer, Military Government, 584–614.

362 literally constructed with scissors and glue: Memorandum for the Judge Advocate General, July 8, 1904, file no. 4275, box 23, Office of the Judge Advocate General Document File, 1894–1912, record group 153, NARA.

363 “comparable in all particulars”: Theodore S. Woolsey, “The Naval War Code,” Columbia Law Review 1 (1901): 298.

363 had to be revoked: U.S. Naval War College, International Law Discussions, 1903: The United States Naval War Code of 1900 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1904).

363 The man the Army chose: Donald A. Wells, The Laws of Land Warfare: A Guide to the U.S. Army Manuals (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992), 4; Geo. B. Davis, [untitled], American Journal of International Law 8, no. 4 (1914): 950–51. As far as I can tell, the only other person to make the connection between the Glenn of the water cure and the Glenn of the 1914 field manual is Dr. Andrew J. Birtle in his U.S. Army Counterinsurgency and Contingency Operations Doctrine, at p. 179. I am grateful to Dr Birtle for helping me confirm that the two references to Edwin F. Glenn were to one and the same man.

363 exiled for years to a series: I have used Glenn’s manuscript service records available in the research library edition of www.ancestry.com.

363–64 cited and argued about at length by prosecutors and defense lawyers alike: Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10, Nuernberg, October 1946–April 1949, 15 vols. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1949–53).

364 “done his work exceedingly well” . . . “continental Europe”: Davis, [untitled], 951.

364 poisons . . . contamination of water supplies: Rules of Land Warfare (1917), §176–85, at pp. 56–58.

364 “the greatest kindness of war”: Ibid., §10, at p. 14.

364 “laws of humanity”: Ibid., §4, at pp. 12–13.

364 “war crimes”: Ibid., §366, at p. 129.

364 “Military necessity”: Ibid., §13, at p. 14; see also §57, at p. 27.

Epilogue

368 willingly cause 750,000 deaths: For the new, higher death toll from the Civil War, see J. David Hacker, “A Census-Based Count of the Civil War Dead,” Civil War History 57, no. 4 (2011): 307, which raises the figure from older estimates of 620,000 deaths.

369 the life of the laws of war: Paraphrasing Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., The Common Law (Boston: Little, Brown, 1881), 1.

370 “a disheartening business”: James G. Randall, Constitutional Problems Under Lincoln, rev. ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1951), p. xxx.

Illustration Credits

Illustrations from the text

Page

24 John André’s self-portrait, 1780. George Dudley Seymour Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University.

66 Massacre of the American prisoners at Frenchtown on the River Raisin by the Savages under the command of the British Genl. Proctor: January 23d. 1813. William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan.

97 Savage Barbarity, from Eunice Barber, Narrative of the tragical death of Mr. Darius Barber, and his seven children, who were inhumanly butchered by the Indians (Boston: David Hazen, 1818). Courtesy of the General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

107 Massacre of the Whites, from A True and authentic account of the Indian war in Florida (New York: Saunders & Van Welt., 1836). Courtesy of the General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

131 N. Currier, An available candidate—the one qualification for a Whig president, 1848. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

143 Alfred R. Waud, Provost Marshal—and police of Alexandria searching and examining a prisoner of war, 1861. Morgan Collection of Civil War Drawings, Library of Congress.

159 Destruction of the privateer Petrel by the St. Lawrence, 1862. Steel engraving by Robert Hinshelwood, after painting by Paul Manzoni. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

171 Rebel assault on the Union right at Fort Donelson, from Harper’s Weekly, March 8, 1862. Courtesy of the General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

189 The destruction of the city of Lawrence, Kansas, and the massacre of its inhabitants by the Rebel guerrillas, August 21, 1863, from Harper’s Weekly, September 5, 1863. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

221 Thomas Wentworth Higginson and First Sergeant Henry Williams, from Mary Thacher Higginson, Letters and Journals of Thomas Wentworth Higginson, 1846–1906 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1921). Courtesy of the Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University.

257 Detail from Rebel Atrocities, in Harper’s Weekly, May 21, 1864. Courtesy of the General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

258 Massacre at Fort Pillow, in Harper’s Weekly, April 30, 1864. Courtesy of the General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

262 Alfred R. Waud, Returned prisoners of war exchanging their rags for new clothing on board Flag of Truce boat New York, 1864. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

297 [Photo of Champ Ferguson, rebel guerrilla, during his trial, with a guard of the 9th Michigan Infantry], 1865. Louis E. Springsteen Photograph Collection, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan.

321 Alfred R. Waud, The casemate, Fortress Monroe, Jeff Davis in prison, 1865. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

331 Adrian J. Ebell, Indian jail for Sioux uprising captives, 1862. Minnesota Historical Society.

360 The Water Cure, from Life Magazine, May 22, 1902. Courtesy of the Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University.

374 General Orders No. 100, 1863. Courtesy of the Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Columbia University.

Illustrations from the insert

Number

1. John Trumbull, General George Washington at Trenton, 1792. Yale University Art Gallery, Gift of the Society of the Cincinnati of Connecticut.

2. George Munger, [U.S. Capitol after burning by the British], c. 1814. Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division.

3. C. W. Peale, John Quincy Adams, 1819. Courtesy of the Philadelphia History Museum at the Atwater Kent, the Historical Society of Pennsylvania Collection.

4. Albert Sands Southworth and Josiah Johnson Hawes, John Quincy Adams, c. 1850. Image copyright © The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Image source: Art Resource, NY.

5. George Cruikshank, American Justice!! Or the Ferocious Yankee Genl. Jack’s Reward for Butchering Two British Subjects!!, 1819. Courtesy of the Tennessee State Museum.

6. Hon. Charles Sumner of Mass., c. 1855–1865. Brady-Handy Photograph Collection, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

7. Mathew Brady, [Abraham Lincoln, seated next to small table, in a reflective pose, May 16, 1861], 1861. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

8. William J. Baker, [The Secretary of State and the diplomatic corps at Trenton Falls, New York], 1863. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

9. Alfred R. Waud, [Incident in the blockade], c. 1860–1865. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

10. “Policeman Wilkes,” from Harper’s Weekly, November 30, 1861. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

11. Francis Lieber, c. 1859. Courtesy of the University Archives, Columbia University in the City of New York.

12. John A. Scholten, [Portrait of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck, officer of the Federal Army], c. 1860–1865. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

13. David B. Woodbury, A Negro family coming into the Union Lines, 1863. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

14. Revenge taken by the Black Army, 1805. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

15. Alexander Gardner, [Abraham Lincoln on battlefield at Antietam, Maryland], 1862. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

16. Adalbert John Volck, Worship of the North, c. 1861–1863. Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Gift of Maxim Karolik for the M. and M. Karolik Collection of American Watercolors and Drawings, 1800–1875.

17. Henry Louis Stephens, The Lash, c. 1863. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

18. Henry Louis Stephens, Blow for Blow, c. 1863. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

19. Francis Lieber, Class of 1862 class photograph, 1862. Courtesy of the University Archives, Columbia University in the City of New York.

20. Samuel A. Cooley, [Beaufort, South Carolina. 29th Regiment from Connecticut], 1864. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

21. Henry Louis Stephens, Make Way for Liberty!, c. 1863. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

22. Alfred R. Waud, [Black Soldier], c. 1862–1865. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

23. George N. Barnard, [Atlanta, Ga. Gen. William T. Sherman on horseback at Federal Fort No. 7], 1864. Selected Civil War photographs, 1861–1865, Library of Congress.

24. George N. Barnard, [Atlanta, Ga. The shell-damaged Ponder House], 1864. Selected Civil War photographs, 1861–1865, Library of Congress.

25. Mathew B. Brady, [Ethan Allen Hitchcock, head-and-shoulders portrait, facing front], c. 1853–1859. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

26. [A Federal prisoner, returned from prison, full-length, seated, nude, facing front], c. 1861–1865. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

27. Confederate prisoners at Belle Plain Landing, Va., captured with Johnson’s Division, May 12, 1864. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

28. Alexander Gardner, [Abraham Lincoln, full-length portrait, seated, facing slightly right], 1863. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

29. [General Nathan B. Forrest], c. 1861–1865. Brady-Handy Photograph Collection, Library of Congress.

30. Alexander Gardner, [Washington, D.C. Hanging hooded bodies of the four conspirators; crowd departing], 1865. Selected Civil War photographs, 1861–1865, Library of Congress.

31. Drawing rations; view from main gate. Andersonville Prison, Georgia, August 17, 1864. National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 162, 165-A-445.

32. Alexander Gardner, [Washington, D.C. Reading the death warrant to Wirz on the scaffold], 1865. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

33. Thomas Nast, Union soldiers in Andersonville prison / The rebel leader, Jeff Davis, at Fortress Monroe, 1865. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

34. Harris & Ewing, photographer, General G. Norman Lieber, c. 1905. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

35. Te-he-do-ne-cha. (One who forbids his house.) Sioux warrior, executed at Mankato, for taking part in Indian Massacre of 1862, c. 1857–1863. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

36. Modocs scalping and torturing prisoners, from Harper’s Weekly, 1873. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

37. Lewis Herman Heller & Carleton E. Watkins, Schonchin and Jack, 1873. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

38. Chiricahua Prisoners, including Geronimo, 1886. National Archives and Records Administration, 111-SC-82320.

39. Francs-tireurs Arronssohn, tirailleurs des ternes: ils en ont vu bien d’autres, from Souvenirs du siége de Paris: les défenseurs de la capitale (Paris: Bureau de l’ Eclipse, 1871). Mid-Manhattan Library, Picture Collection, New York Public Library.

40. Johann Caspar Bluntschli, from Zürich: Geschichte, Kultur, Wirtschaft (Zürich: Gebr. Fretz, 1933), courtesy Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University.

41. Alfred Thayer Mahan, c. 1900. LC-USZ62–3124, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

42. [Water Cure], 1899–1902. 111-SC-98202, National Archives and Records Administration.

43. Harris & Ewing, photographer, Plattsburg Reserve Officers Training Camp. Major Edwin F. Glenn, U.S.A., 1916. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.