CHAPTER FOUR
The pagan religions of the Greeks and Romans had many gods and goddesses who had aspects by which they could be worshipped. Similarly, there were a great many allegorical personifications which represented certain virtues and concepts. In the later Christianized Empire, the deities were dropped from coinage entirely. The exceptions to this were Victory (originally a goddess, but transformed into a personification) and the personifications of the cities of Rome and Constantinople.
The vast majority of reverse types on Imperial and provincial coins depict gods, goddesses or personifications. The variety encountered on provincial coins is considerable, and those figures shown here are the ones which most frequently occur on the Imperial coinages. In the descriptions below, the Latin name of the figure is given first, followed by the Greek version (if any) in brackets thereafter. The functions of the figure are next given, followed by his or her principal attributes (Attr.:), i.e., what he or she may be holding or standing next to, etc. Bear in mind that the deities and personifications often had many powers, sometimes overlapping or complementary with those of other religious figures.
Abundantia (Euthenia) Personifies abundance and plenty; she is similar to Annona and Uberitas. Attr.: She holds a cornucopia (often being emptied) and grain ears or a modius.
Aequitas (Dikaiosyne) Personifies equity and fairness, especially in commercial affairs, and thus is similar to Justitia. Attr.: She holds a set of scales and cornucopia, or measuring rod (pertica), patera and branch.
Aesculapius (Asklepios) God of healing and of medicine; sometimes shown with his attendant Telesphorus as a small figure. Attr.: He holds a staff entwined with serpent, and sometimes a globe at his feet.
Aeternitas Personifies eternity and stability. Attr.: She holds a torch, globe, phoenix, cornucopia, scepter or heads of Sol and Luna; often shown leaning against a column or seated on a globe.
Ammon An Egyptian god often assimilated with Zeus (Jupiter) by the Greeks. Attr.: He wears ramís horns at his forehead.
Annona Personifies the harvest of grain; as such she is similar to Abuntantia, and when an inscription is not specific she can be difficult to identify. Attr.: She holds grain ears and a cornucopia (rarely a statuette); often with a shipís prow and/or a modius at her feet.
Apollo God of the sun (later assimilated, it would seem, into Sol; i.e. Apollo-Helios), prophecy, health, literature and the fine arts (especially music); twin of Diana. Attr.: He is effeminate in appearance and usually holds a lyre and laurel branch or other object.
Bacchus or Liber (Dionysos) (standing at right, beside Hercules) God of the vine. Attr.: He is often effeminate in appearance and holds a thrysus, wine cup, and is usually accompanied by a panther; seldom shown on Imperial coins, but frequently (as Dionysos) on provincial issues.
Bonus Eventus (not illustrated) Personifies luck and good fortune; literally ìgood outcome.î Attr.: He holds a cornucopia, a patera, grain ears, a branch or a poppy.
Cabiri (see Vulcan)
Castor (see Dioscuri)
Ceres (Demeter) Goddess of agriculture; as such she is related to Annona. Attr.: She is shown wearing a headdress of grain ears, and usually holds grain ears, poppies, a cornucopia or a torch.
Clementia Personifies clemency and mercy. Attr.: She holds a branch and scepter, and sometimes is shown leaning against a column.
Concordia (Homonoia) Personifies concord and harmony, thus she is similar to Patientia. Attr.: She holds a patera and a cornucopia or scepter, an olive branch, a flower, ears of grain or a statuette of Spes; in her warlike aspect she holds standards.
Constantia Personifies courage and perseverance. Attr.: She is shown in military garb and often holds a spear; chiefly used on the coinage of Claudius.
Constantinopolis Personifies the city of Constantinople as its personal Tyche, and is similar to Roma. Attr.: She is shown turreted or helmeted, often holding a cornucopia and globe with Victory upon it; her right foot is on a shipís prow.
Cybele The great Anatolian mother-goddess; the Magna Mater or Mater Deum (Mother of the Gods). Attr.: She wears a turreted crown, usually holds a patera and tympanum (small drum), or a scepter, and is usually shown seated in a cart drawn by lions or on a throne with lion supporters.
Diana (Artemis) The moon goddess, in some aspects similar to Luna; twin of Apollo. Attr.: As the huntress, she often holds a bow with arrows, or is accompanied by a hound or a deer; in her lunar aspect she holds a torch or is shown with a crescent-moon on her head or at her shoulders.
Dioscuri Castor and Pollux (sons of Zeus); usually depicted on Republican coins, though rarely on Imperial, upon which Castor sometimes appears. Attr.: Caps (pilei) surmounted by stars.
Fecunditas Personifies fruitfulness and fertility (especially of Imperial marriages), thus she is similar to Uberitas. Attr.: She often holds a cornucopia, scepter, palm branch or caduceus and is accompanied by a child (or children), which she holds or who stands at her feet.
Felicitas (Eutycheia) Personifies happiness associated with prosperity and success. Attr.: She most often holds a cornucopia and a caduceus or scepter, though also other objects, and sometimes leans against a column.
Fides Personifies good faith, loyalty and trustworthiness. Attr.: She holds a cornucopia, patera, basket of fruit or grain ears, or in her military guise, standard(s) or a scepter.
Fortuna or Fors (Tyche) Personifies good fortune, prosperity, etc. Attr.: She most often holds a rudder and cornucopia, though also other objects; sometimes she has a wheel at her side.
Four Seasons Personifying the seasons spring, summer, fall and winter. Attr.: They are most often shown as four nude boys at play, but occasionally individually, such as on a series of quadrantes.
Genius Personifies the ìspiritî and positive qualities of its subject (most often the people, the army or the senate of Rome, or of a city or region). Attr.: He is usually shown almost fully nude, holding a patera (from which he sometimes pours a libation onto an altar) and a cornucopia, globe, scepter, or the head of Serapis; in his military guise he holds a standard.
Graces (see Three Graces)
Hercules (Herakles) A heroic demi-god famous for his strength and for his many labors. Attr.: He is usually shown nude or nearly so, and holds a club, the Nemean lionís skin or a bow and quiver; he is usually bearded.
Hilaritas Personifies rejoicing, thus is similar to Laetitia. Attr.: She holds a cornucopia and palm branch or scepter and may be accompanied by children.
Honos Personifies honor (particularly military), and thus he is similar to Virtus, with whom he shared a temple. Attr.: He holds a cornucopia, olive branch or scepter.
Indulgentia Personifies gentleness or leniency. Attr.: She holds a scepter and sometimes a patera.
Isis An Egyptian goddess, the consort of Osiris (and thus of Serapis). Attr.: She is shown with a rattle (sistrum), ears of grain, or suckling her infant Horus; she has many guises, including that of a sea-goddess.
Janus The god of beginnings and endings (and doors or gates, comings and goings). Attr.: He is easily recognized by his ìjaniformî bearded double-faced head; the first month of the year was named after him.
Juno (Hera) The chief female divinity, the consort of Jupiter and a member of the Capitoline Triad. Attr.: She is shown holding a patera, scepter or a statuette of Athena, and is often accompanied by a peacock; she had many different aspects, including that of Juno Moneta (the mint in Republican times was situated next to her temple on the Capitoline Hill, and her sacred geese warned the Romans of an impending attack by Gauls in 390 B.C.).
Jupiter or Jove (Zeus) The Father of the Gods, the chief god of the Roman pantheon and of the Capitoline Triad, and the consort of Juno; the brother of Neptune (Poseidon). Attr.: He is shown holding a thunderbolt, a scepter, or a statuette of Victory, and is often accompanied by his eagle. He had a great number of aspects and epithets. Except for one coin type of Valerian II, he is depicted as a mature, bearded man.
Justitia Personifies justice, and was similar to the more commercially oriented A equitas. Attr.: She holds a scepter, a patera or an olive branch.
Juventas Personifies youth or youthfulness. Attr.: She is shown draped, holding a branch, trophy or patera, or dropping incense on a candelabrum. PRINCIPIIVVENTVTIS (ìleader of the youthî) was a title granted to the Caesar or heir-apparent that was often recorded on coins.
Laetitia Personifies gladness and happiness; thus she is similar to Hilaritas. Attr.: She holds a scepter, ears of grain, a wreath, an anchor or a rudder on globe.
Liber (see Bacchus)
Liberalitas Personifies liberality (generosity). Attr.: She holds a cornucopia and an item usually described as a tablet (tessera) or an abacus, but which probably was a board drilled with denarius-sized recesses. This ëcoin counterí board seemingly would be used for rapidly filling with a precise number of coins and then for emptying them into the toga fold of a recipient.
Libertas (Eleutheria) Personifies liberty or the restoration of freedom. Attr.: She holds a liberty cap (pileus) and a scepter, a wreath, ears of grain or a patera.
Luna (Selene) (not illustrated) Goddess of the moon who is usually replaced on coinage by Diana in her guise as L ucifera, but who sometimes has that appellation herself. Attr.: She wears a crescent moon upon her head and is sometimes paired with her counterpart, the sun-god Sol (Helios).
Mars (Ares) God of war. Attr.: He is shown helmeted, sometimes wearing armor (other times nude), and usually holding a spear along with either a shield or trophy of arms; occasionally he holds an olive branch. He is difficult to differentiate from Virtus, Romulus or a simple soldier.
Mercury (Hermes) The messenger-god. Attr.: He wears a wide-brimmed hat (petasus), sometimes winged, and holds a caduceus and a purse (this because he was also the patron of merchants and commerce).
Minerva (Athena) The goddess of wisdom who protected men in war, a member of the Capitoline Triad. Attr.: She is shown helmeted, draped and in armor, holding a shield and a spear or a statuette of Victory; she sometimes stands upon a prow and is accompanied by her owl.
Minos (seemingly Serapis misdescribed; for commentary, see Pluto)
Moneta Personifies the mint, coinage, and money in general. Attr.: She holds a set of scales and a cornucopia, or scepter, and is sometimes shown in trio as the Three Monetae (representing gold, silver and bronze), with piles of coins added at their feet. The trio appear infrequently on coins, but are a standard type on medallions. The origin of Moneta is linked directly to the goddess Juno in her role as Juno Moneta.
Nemesis A winged avenger-goddess who punished those guilty of wrong-doing and assured fair distribution. Attr.: She typically brings a fold of her robe toward her face (to spit as a sign of aversion), holds a caduceus, a purse, bridle, measuring rod or other object; often a serpent or wheel is at her feet. Occasionally she is assimilated with Victory.
Neptune (Poseidon) God of the sea, originally a god of water to the Romans; the brother of Jupiter (Zeus). Attr.: He typically holds a trident and dolphin, acrostolium (a decoration from a warship), anchor or globe. He sometimes is shown with his right foot upon a prow.
Nobilitas Personifies high birth and nobility. Attr.: She holds a globe, scepter or the Palladium (the statue of Athena stolen from Troy and eventually taken to Italy by Aeneas).
Ops Personifies wealth, or perhaps more accurately, power and prosperity; the wife of Saturn. Attr.: She holds grain ears or a scepter and she appears only on coins of Antoninus Pius and Pertinax.
Patientia (not illustrated) Personifies patience and endurance, thus she is similar to Constantia. Attr.: She holds a scepter and was used only by Hadrian.
Pax (Eirene) Goddess of peace. Attr.: She holds an olive branch, scepter, cornucopia or caduceus, etc. She also may bear a wreath, palm branch or military standard, etc. to represent peace achieved through a victory.
Pietas (Eusebeia) Personifies duty, loyalty and piety toward the gods, the state, and the family; thus in some respects is similar to Vesta. Attr.: She is often veiled, holds a patera, scepter, cornucopia, flower, etc. or is shown emptying a box of perfume over an altar.
Pluto (Hades) Just as Minos, Pluto has been mistakenly identified as the seated figure (see illustration) on coins struck by Caracalla from 215ñ217 because of the fantastic creature at his feet (identified as Cerberus, with Pluto, and the Minotaur, with Minos). Actually the figure is Serapis, wearing a modius; the creature appears at the feet of Serapisí cult statue in Alexandria.
Providentia (Pronoia) Personifies foresight and forethought. Attr.: She sometimes leans against a column, and usually holds a scepter, a globe or a wand (that she often points at a globe), and occasionally a spear, a rudder, a cornucopia or a patera.
Pudicitia Personifies chastity and modesty. Attr.: She is usually veiled and sometimes holds a scepter. Her cult may have been re-established in honor of the Augusta Plotina.
Quies Personifies rest or repose. Attr.: A draped female holding a branch and scepter, she is sometimes paired with Providentia.
Roma The goddess who personified Rome. Attr.: She is shown helmeted, wearing armor and drapery (often with one breast exposed), holding a spear, scepter, statuette of Victory (often on a globe) or a Palladium, a wreath or short sword (parazonium) in its sheath. She is hard to distinguish from Virtus.
Romulus and Remus The legendary founders of Rome. Attr: The brothers are shown as nude infants crouched below the she-wolf who suckles them. The adult Romulus is shown in armor, holding spear and trophy. He is difficult to differentiate from Mars or a simple soldier.
Salus (Hygieia) Personifies health, safety and general welfare (in Christian times ìsalvationî). Attr.: She holds a scepter and is usually shown feeding a snake from a patera.
Saturn (Kronos) (not illustrated) A very ancient agricultural deity, one of the Titans, Saturn was believed to be the father of Jupiter (Zeus). Attr.: He is bearded and robed, and sometimes has a harpa or a sickle. He appears infrequently and is not named in the inscriptions.
Seasons (see Four Seasons)
Securitas Personifies security and confidence. Attr.: She is often seated or leans against a column, and usually holds a patera or scepter, but alternatively a cornucopia, palm branch, globe or crown.
Senatus A Genius personifying the senate. Attr.: He is shown bearded and togate holding a scroll, scepter, branch or a globe.
Serapis An Egyptian god created by the Greek king Ptolemy I bearing relation to Osiris, and thus was the consort of Isis. Attr.: He usually wears a modius upon his head and often holds a scepter and raises his right hand. For another depiction of Serapis, often misdescribed, see Pluto.
She-wolf (see Romulus and Remus)
Sol (Helios) The sun-god. Attr.: He is usually shown nude or semi-nude, with radiate head, raising his right hand and holding a globe or a whip. Often he drives a chariot or is paired with his counterpart, the moon-goddess Luna (Selene). He appears principally in the 3rd Century A.D. and on early Constantinian-Era coins.
Spes (Elpis) Personifies hope, though she was worshipped as a goddess. On coinage she principally represented the dynastic hopes of the emperor. Attr.: She is shown in Archaic fashion (copied from a statue) advancing, raising the hem of her dress and holding a flower.
Tellus Personifies earth both as a physical and spiritual concept. Attr.: She is often shown reclining, with a variety of agricultural implements and products.
Three Graces The goddesses of charm, beauty and cultural pleasures; named Euphrosyne, Aglaia and Thalia, they were the attendants of Venus. Attr.: They are shown only on provincial coins as a statuary group: nude, sometimes holding apples. The central figure is usually shown from behind with the two at the sides facing.
Tranquillitas Personifies tranquillity. Attr.: She sometimes leans against a column and holds a scepter or capricorn, or objects related to the grain supply.
Uberitas or Ubertas Personifies abundance, fruitfulness and fertility, thus she is similar to A bundantia and Fecunditas. Attr.: She holds a cornucopia, cluster of grapes or an uncertain object that may be a cowís udder.
Utilitas or Utilitas Publica Personifies public utility. Attr.: She is simply presented as a draped female, but is identified by the inscription. An exception occurs under Constantine the Great, where she has the attributes of Moneta in reference to the transfer of mint facilities from Ostia to Aries.
Venus (Aphrodite) The goddess of beauty and charm. Attr.: She variously holds an apple, a mirror, a statuette of Victory, a helmet, dolphin or scepter. Usually she is fully clothed, but sometimes is half-nude with her back turned to the viewer, leaning against a column.
Vesta (Hestia) Goddess of family values and domestic life (i.e. the hearth), and thus is similar in some ways to Pietas. Attr.: She is always draped and variously holds a patera, simpulum, scepter, and torch, Palladium or trophy. The maintenance of her cult was carried out by six Vestal Virgins who sometimes are shown sacrificing before her circular temple.
Victoria or Victory (Nike) Personifies victory, though she was worshipped as a goddess. Attr.: She is winged and usually holds a wreath and palm branch, though often she holds or inscribes a shield, or erects a trophy of arms, crowns an emperor, or drives a chariot. In early Christian times she loses her divine status and becomes strictly a personification; later still (in the early 6th Century under Justin I) she is transformed into a male Angel.
Virtus Personifies valor, courage, and bravery, thus is similar to Honos, with whom she shared a temple. Attr.: She is usually shown in full armor and holds a statuette of Victory, a spear, shield or short sword in its sheath. Though she often has one breast exposed, she is difficult to differentiate from Roma.
Vulcan or Vulcanus (Hephaistos) God of fire and iron, and more generally of metal-working. Attr.: He wears a pileus and is shown holding a hammer, tongs and often has an anvil at his feet. Also: The Cabiri Twin gods similar in function to Vulcan, from whom they are said to have been descended. Attr.: Perhaps appearing only on an issue of Claudius II , one of the Cabiri is shown wearing a pileus and holding a hammer and tongs.