The Scythians are the earliest of the pastoral peoples about whom we have solid information. These Iranianspeaking Indo-Europeans made their appearance on the stage of world history in the seventh century bce. They seem to have migrated from the steppes, settling in the area north of the Black Sea that they had wrested from another nomadic people, the Cimmerians. For much of the seventh century, the Scythians raided and ravaged the prosperous kingdoms of the Middle East. One of their most successful raids took place in 612 bce when, in conjunction with the Medes, also originally steppe nomads, they sacked the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. Shortly thereafter, the Medes and Scythians seem to have had a falling-out, and, according to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Medes treacherously killed the Scythian leaders at a feast.
For the next century or so, the Scythians remained on the steppes north of the Black Sea. But in 512 bce, they seem to have drawn the attention of the rising power of the Middle East, the Persians, who also had nomadic origins. The great Persian king and conqueror, Darius I, mustered a large expedition that easily handled the Thracian tribes across the Hellespont and then proceeded into the land of the Scythians north of the Danube. The Scythians seem to have been caught unawares by the Persian invasion. They realized that without time to consolidate their forces they would stand little chance against Darius’s massive, well-equipped invasion force. Rather than face Darius’s army in open battle, they sent their families to the north, while the main body of warriors drew the Persians away. Darius followed, leaving a substantial rearguard at his bridge across the Danube. For some twenty days, Darius pursued the Scythian warriors. While the nomads grew stronger as reinforcements swelled their ranks, the Persian army dwindled in the face of the scorched-earth policy of the Scythians. The Persians followed the nomads along the northern coast of the Sea of Azov. But, because he was not able to bring the Scythians to battle, Darius was forced to withdraw to the Danube. At this point, the Scythians became more aggressive and attacked Darius’s foraging and flanking parties. Darius withdrew across the bridge under cover of his rearguard, whom the Scythians had tried to convince to abandon their Persian overlords. Darius learned the painful answer to a question Herodotus would later ask: “How can such a people [the Scythians] fail to defeat the attempt of an invader not only to subdue them, but even to make contact with them?” This tactic used by the Scythians may be the strategic version of feigned flight, designed to draw the enemy in and then turn on him after he has lost his cohesion and discipline.
Social Organization
Like most nomads, the Scythian tribes were loosely organized and, fortunately for their neighbors, tended not to cooperate very often. At the time of the Persian invasion in 512, there were three main Scythian leaders, who cooperated only in this time of great need. This was, in the eyes of the Greek historian Thucydides, indeed fortunate; he commented that no nation could stand against the warlike Scythians should they cooperate.
The Scythians had a reputation as a savage and warlike people. Herodotus recorded that their customs included head-hunting—the skull of an enemy would be used by the warrior who killed him as a drinking cup—and taking scalps, which were used to adorn the bridle of the Scythian’s horse. Indeed, young men were not permitted to cut their hair until they had killed their first enemy in battle. The warlike nature of the Scythians was not restricted to the men of the tribe—Scythian women were probably expected to fight as well. Certainly, a number of burials of Sarmatian women (see below) have been found that include a bow, arrows, gorytos (bow case), knife, javelin, and other warrior gear. These finds support literary evidence that women could and did engage in combat. It is, therefore, no coincidence that when the Greeks portrayed Amazons in art, they are in Scythian garb.
Scythian Warfare
Most, but not all, Scythian warriors fought on horseback, with the majority of these horsemen lightly armed commoners. When going off to battle, every Scythian carried a bow. When not in use, the bow was carried in a gorytos, which also served as a quiver for the arrows. Based on Scythian burials, most of the warriors seem to have also carried a javelin or spear. Likewise, axes and swords seem to have been reasonably common. For protection, most warriors also carried a wicker or wooden shield, perhaps covered in metallic scales.
A Scythian Horse-Archer
In addition to a bow, the mounted warrior might also have been armed with a javelin or spear, an axe, and a sword, as well as a shield.
In addition to these commoners, every Scythian army fielded an elite force of more heavily armed horsemen drawn from the tribal princes and nobles and their retainers. In addition to the weaponry carried by all the warriors, the lance seems to have been favored by these nobles. They were well protected by shields, like those carried by the common warriors, and by metal armor. This armor was usually iron or bronze scales sewn on a leather corselet; there is even evidence for leather leggings, similar to western chaps, reinforced with metal scales. Some of the wealthiest warriors even had such reinforced leather breastplates for their horses.