number

letter

name

symbol

connotation

(1)

F

FA

CATTLE

Wealth

(2)

U

UR

PRIMAL OX

Creative Power

(3)

Th

THURS

THORN TREE

Lightning/Sudden change

(4)

A

OS

MOUTH

Wisdom

(5)

R

RAD/RIT

WHEEL

Journey

(6)

K

CEN/KA

PINE-TORCH

Fire/Regeneration

(7)

H

HAGAL

HAIL

Delay

(8)

N

NOT/NYD

—

Caution

(9)

I

IS

ICE

Inertia

(10)

Y

AR

SERPENT

Necessary Evil

(11)

S

SI6/SIGEL

SUNBEAM

Light/Victory

(12)

T

TYR

ARROWHEAD

Success

(13)

B

BAR

BIRCH

Purlty/Rebirth

(14)

L

LAF

WATER

Lifeforce

(15)

M

MAN

MAN

Humanity

(16)

—

YR

YEW, BOW

Skill

(17)

Kh

EH

CHALICE (Inverted)

Death

(18)

G

GA/GIBOR

ODIN’S SPEAR

Axle, Fulcrum

letter

tree

bird

colour

dates

B

beithe

birch

besan

pheasant

White

24 Dec.–20 Jan.

L

luis

rowan

lacha

duck

Light Grey

21 Jan.–17 Feb.

N

nion

ash

naoscach

snipe

Transparent

18 Feb.–18 Mar.

F

fearn

alder

faoileán

gull

Crimson

19 Mar.–14 Apr.

S

saileach

willow

seabhac

hawk

Fire

15 Apr.–12 May

H

(h)uath

hawthorn

(h)adaig

night crow

Earth

13 May—9 Jun.

D

dair

oak

dreoilin

wren

Black

10 Jun.–7 Jul.

T

tinne

holly

truit

starling

Grey

8 Jul.–4 Aug.

C

coll

hazel

corr

crane

Brown

5 Aug.–1 Sept.

M

muin

vine

meantán

titmouse

Motley

2 Sept.–29 Sept.

G

gort

ivy

géis

mute swan

Blue

30 Sept.–27 Oct.

Ng

(n)getal

broom

(n)gé

goose

Green

28 Oct.–25 Nov.

R

ruis

elder

rocnat

rook

Blood-red

26 NOV.–23 Dec.

A

ailme

pine

airdhircleog

lapwing

Piebald

Winter Solstice, 1

O

onn

furze

odoroscrach

cormorant

Dun

Vernal Equinox

U

úr

heather

uiseóg

skylark

Resin

Summer Solstice

E

edad

poplar

ela

whistling swan

Red

Autumn Equinox

1

iúr

yew

illait

eaglet

White

Winter Solstice, 2

B = Birchday/Sunday; S = Willowday/Monday; T = Hollyday/Tuesday; N = Ashday/Wednesday;
D = Oakday/Thursday; Q = Appleday/Friday; F = Alderday/Saturday

After C. J. Marstrander et al (eds.), Dictionary of the Irish Language (Dublin, 1913–76), 4 vols.

Sign

Date

Probable first use

latus, square root

—

Roman

1/2

fractional line

1202

Leonardo da Pisa, Liber abbaci

%

per cent

1425

Italian commercial usage

+

(et) plus

1489

J. Widman, Behennde und hubsche Rechnung auf

−

minus

1489

alien Kaufmanschaften

plus

1494

Luca Pacioli, Summa de arithmetica (Venice)

minus

1494

M

multiplicatio

1544

M. Stifel, Arithmetica integra (Germany)

D

divisio

=

equality

1557

R. Recorde, Ground of Artes (Oxford)

•

decimal fraction

1585

Simon Stevin, La thiende (Antwerp)

±

plus/minus

1626

J. Girard (France)

×

multiplication

1631

W. Oughtred, Clavis mathematica (London)

proportion

1631

difference

1631

> 

greater than

1631

T. Harriot, Artis analyticae praxis (London)

less than

1631

X2

powers

1634

P. Herigone, Cursus mathematicus (Paris)

∞

infinity

1655

J. Wallis, De sectionibus conicis (Oxford)

similar

1655

÷

division

1659

J. H. Rahn, Teutsche Algebra (Nuremberg)

therefore

1659

:

ratio

1669

V. Wing, Astronomica britannica (London)

square root

1669

π

pi

1706

W. Jones, Synopsis palmariorum matheseos

( )

aggregation

1726

J. Herman, Commentarii, i (St Petersburg)

e

logarithm base

1736

L Euler, Mechanica, i

E

Euler’s Number

1736

C

Euler’s Constant

1736

L Euler, Commentarii (SI Petersburg)

∫

summa, number theory

1750

L Euler, De numeris amicalibus

Σ

summation

1755

L Euler, Institutiones calculi differentialis

≡

congruence

1801

F. Gauss, Disquisitiones arithmeticae

since, because

1805

Gentleman’s Mathematical Companion

Carolingian Dynasty

d741

Charles Martel, Duke of the Franks

741–54

Carloman, Mayor of Austrasia

741–68

Pepin III, Mayor of Neustria 752 King Pepin | of the Franks

768–814

Charles | the Great (Charlemagne*)

814–40

Louis | the Debonair of Aquitaine*

840–55

Lothair, King of Italy*

855–75

Lewis II, King of Italy*

855–76

Lewis the German of Bavaria, King of Germany

876–82

Lewis the Saxon

875–7

Charles II le Chauve, King of Neustria*

877–9

Louis II, King of France

879–82

Louis III, King of France

882–4

Carloman, King of France

882–5

Charles the Fat*

891–4

Wido of Spoleto*

893–928

Charles III the Simple, King of France

887–99

Arnuif, King of Germany*

896–9

Lambert of Spoleto*

901–5

Lewis, King of Provence*

KINGDOM OF FRANCE

Saxon Dynasty

918–36

Henry I, the Fowler, King of Germany

928–54

Louis IV d’Outremer, King of France

954–85

Lothair, King of France

986–7

Louis V, le Faineant, King of France

Capetian Dynasty

987–96

Hugues Capet

996–1031

Robert le Pieux

1031–60

Henri |

1060–1108

Philippe |

1108–37

Louis VI le Gros

1137–80

Louis VII

1180–1223

Philippe-Auguste

1223–6

Louis VIII

1226–70

Louis IX, St.

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

936(62)–73

Otto I,* The Great

973–83

Otto II*

983–1002

Otto III*

1002–24

Henry II*

Salian or Franconian Dynasty

1024–39

Conrad II*

1039–56

Henry III*

1056–1106

Henry IV*

1106–25

Henry V*

1125–37

Lothair II* of Saxony

Hohenstauffen Dynasty

1138–52

Conrad III

1152–90

Frederick | Barbarossa*

[1177–80

Rudolf of Swabia]

[1081–8

Hermann of Luxemburg]

1190–7

Henry VI*

1198–1218

Otto IV* of Brunswick (Guelph)

[1198–1208

Philip of Hohenstaufen]

1211–50

Frederick II*

[1246–50

Henry Raspe of Thuringia]

[1247–56

William of Holland]

KINGDOM OF FRANCE

1270–85

Philippe III le Hardi

1285–1314

Philippe IV le Bel

1314–16

Louis X

1316–22

Philippe V

Valois Dynasty

1322–8

Charles IV

1328–50

Philippe VI

1350–64

Jean Le Bon

1364–80

Charles V le Sage

1380–1422

Charles VI le Simple

1422–61

Charles VII le Bien Aimé

1461–83

Louis XI

1483–98

Charles VIII

1498–1515

Louis XII

1515–47

Francis I

1547–59

Henri II

1559–60

Francis II

1560–74

Charles IX

1574–89

Henri III

Bourbon Dynasty

1589–1610

Henri IV

1610–43

Louis XIII

1643–1715

Louis XIV

1715–74

Louis XV

1774–93

Louis XVI

1793–5

Louis XVII

Napoleonic Empire

1804–15

Napoleon I*

Bourbon Restoration

1814–24

Louis XVIII

1824–30

Charles X

1830–48

Louis-Philippe

Napoleonic Restoration

1852–70

Napoleon III*

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

1250–4

Conrad I

[1257–72

Richard of Cornwall]

[1257–75

Alfonso X of Castile]

1273–91

Rudolf I of Habsburg

1292–8

Adolph of Nassau

1298–1308

Albert I of Habsburg

1308–13

Henry VII* of Luxemburg

1314–47

Lewis IV* of Wittelsbach = Matilda of Habsburg

[1314–30

Frederick the Fair of Habsburg]

1346–78

Charles IV* of Luxemburg

[1349

Gunther of Schwartzburg]

1378–1400

Wenceslas of Luxemburg

1400–10

Rupert of the Palatinate

1410–37

Sigismund* of Luxemburg

[1410–11

Jobst of Moravia]

Habsburg Dynasty

1438–9

Albert

1440–93

Frederick III

1493–1519

Maximilian I*

1519–56

Charles V*

1556–64

Ferdinand I*

1564–76

Maximilian II*

1576–1612

Rudolf II*

1612–37

Ferdinand II*

1637–57

Ferdinand III*

1658–1705

Leopold I*

1705–11

Joseph I*

1711–40

Charles VI*

1742–5

Charles VII* of Bavaria

1745–65

Francis I* of Lorraine = Maria Theresa, Habsburg

1765–90

Joseph II*

1790–2

Leopold II*

1792–1806

Francis II* (Francis I)

Habsburg Emperors of Austria

1804–35

Francis I*

1835–48

Ferdinand I*

1848–1916

Francis-Joseph I*

1916–18

Charles I*

Hohenzollern Emperors of Germany

1871–88

William I* of Prussia

1888

Frederick III*

1888–1918

William II*

Bologna

1088

Paris

c.1150

Oxford

1167

Salerno*

1173

Palenzia

c.1178

Reggio

1188

Vicenza

1204

Cambridge*

1209

Salamanca

1218–19

Padua

1222

Naples

1224

Vercelli

1228

Toulouse

1229

Piacenza

1248

Valladolid

c.1237

Seville

1254

Arezzo*

1255

Montpellier*

1289

Lisbon

1290

Macerata

13th cent.

Lerida

1300

Rome

1303

Avignon

1303

Orléans

1306

Perugia

1308

Coimbra

1308

Treviso

1318

Cahors

1332

Angers

1337

Grenoble

1339(1542)

Pisa

1343

Prague

1347

Perpignan

1350

Huesca

1354

Sienna*

1357

Pavia

1361

Kraków

1364(1400)

Vienna

1365

Orange

1365

Pecs (Fünfkirchen)

1367

Erfurt

1379

Heidelberg

1385

Cologne

1388

Buda (Ofen)

1389

Ferrara

1391

Barcelona

1401 (1450)

Wurzburg

1402

Turin

1404

Aix-en-Provence

1409

Leipzig

1409

St Andrews

1411

Rostock

1419

Dole

1422

Louvain

1425

Poitiers

1431

Caen

1432

Bordeaux

1441

Catania

1434–44

Barcelona

1450

Glasgow

1451

Valence

1452

Greifswald

1456

Freiburg

1457

Basel

1459

Ingolstadt

1459(1472)

Nantes

1460

Bourges

1463

Bratislava (Pressburg)

1465

Genoa*

1471

Trier

1452(1473)

Saragossa

1474

Mainz

1476

Tubingen

1476

Uppsala

1477

Copenhagen

1475(1479)

Palma

1483

Aberdeen

1495

Frankfurt/Oder

1498

Alcala

1499

Valencia

1500

Wittenberg

1502

Avila

1504

Marburg

1527

Granada

1531

Kõnigsberg

1544

Jena

1558

Geneva

1559(1876)

Olomouc

1570

Leiden

1572

Oviedo

1574(1608)

Helmstedt

1575

Vilnius

1578

Altdorf*

1578

Edinburgh

1582

Graz

1586

Dublin

1592

Cagliari

1596

Harderwijk

1600

Giessen

1607

Groningen

1614

Rinteln

1621

Strasbourg*

1621

Salzburg

1623

Dorpat

1632

Utrecht

1634

Sassari

1634

Pest (Tymau) Nagyszembat

1635

Abo (Helsinki)

1640

Bamberg

1648

Durham

1657(1837)

Kiel

1665

Lund

1666

Innsbruck

1672

Modena*

1683

Besançon

1691

Halle

1693

Breslau

1702

Dijon

1722

Camerino

1727

Göttingen

1733

Erlangen

1743

Moscow

1755

Ljubljana

1774

Zagreb*

1776

Palermo*

1779

Lemberg (Lwów)

1784

Kharkov

1804

Kazan

1804

Lille

1808

Lyons

1808

Rennes

1808

Berlin

1810

Christiania (Oslo)

1811

Genoa*

1812

Ghent

1815

Liège*

1815

Warsaw

1816

Bonn

1818

St Petersburg

1819

Madrid

1822

London

1826

Munich*

1826

Zurich*

1832

Durham

1832

Bern*

1834

Brussels*

1834

Kiev

1834

Athens

1837

Messina

1838

Munster*

1843

Queen’s Belfast

1850

Marseille

1854

lasi

1860

Bucharest

1864

Odessa

1865

Cluj

1872

Czernowitz

1875

Amsterdam

1877

Stockholm

1877

Manchester

1880

Birmingham

1880

Fribourg

1889

Lausanne*

1891

Wales*

1893

Constantinople

1900

Leeds*

1904

Liverpool*

1904

Sofia*

1904

Belgrade*

1905

Bristol

1909

Debrecen*

1912

POLAND

Piast Dynasty

9th cent.?

Piast

pre-965–91

Mieszko I

992–1025

Boleslaw I (the Brave)*

1025–37

Mieszko II*

1038–58

Casimir I (the Restorer)

1058–79

Boleslaw II (the Generous*

1079–1102

Wladyslaw Herman

1102–38

Boleslaw III (the Wry-mouthed)

1138–46

Wladyslaw II (the Exile)

1146–77

Boleslaw IV (the Curly) of Mazovia

1173–7

Mieszko III

1177–94

Casimir II (the Just) of Sandomierz

1194–1202

Meszko the Elder, of Wielkopolska

1202–27

Leszek the White, of Sandomierz

1228–31

Wladyslaw III (Spindieshanks) of Wielkopolska

1231–8

Henry I Brodaty of Silesia

1238–41

Henry II of Silesia

1241–3

Konrad I Mazowiecki

1243–79

Boleslaw V of Sandomierz

1279–88

Leszek (the Black)

1288–90

Henry IV of Silesia

1290–1300

Przemysl I Wielkopolski

1300–5

Vaclav II (King of Bohemia)

1305–6

Vaclav II (King of Bohemia)

1306–33

Wladyslaw I* (the Elbow-high)

1333–70

Casimir III* (the Great)

Angevin Dynasty

1370–82

Louis of Anjou* (King of Hungary)

1384–6

Jadwiga (Hedwig) of Anjou* (1386–99, co-monarch)

Jagiellonian Dynasty

1386–1434

Wladyslaw Jagieitb*

1434–44

Wladyslaw III* of Varna (King of Hungary)

1444–92

Kazimierz IV of Jagiellonczyk*

1492–1501

Jan Olbracht (John Albert*

1501–6

Alexander*

1506–48

Zygmunt Stary (Sigismund I*

1548–72

Sigismund II Augustus*

Elected Kings of the Rzeczpospolita

1573–4

Henry de Valois of France*

1576–86

Stefan Bathory* of Transylvania

1587–1632

Sigismund III* Vasa of Sweden

1632–48

Wladyslaw IV* Vasa

1648–68

Jan Kazimierz Vasa*

1669–73

Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki*

1674–96

Jan III Sobieski*

1697–1704

Augustus II Wettin* of Saxony

1704–10

Stanislaw Leszczynski*

1710–33

Augustus II Wettin*

1733–63

Augustus III Wettin*

1764–95

Stanislaw-August Poniatowski*

KIEVAN RUS’

Rurikid Dynasty

c.862–79

Rurik, Prince of Novgorod

880–

Oleg, Prince of Kiev

912–45

Igor

945–69

Olga, St

969–80

Sviatoslav

980–1015

Vladimir, St (Volodymyr)

1019–54

Yaroslav the Wise

1113–25

Vladimir Monomakh of Rostov

1155–7

Yuri Dolgorukii of Kiev

1157–74

Andrei Bogoliubskii of Vladimir & Suzdal

1178–1202

Igor of Sever

1240–63

Alexander Nevskii, of Novgorod & Vladimir

1235–65

Daniel Romanowicz, of Halich

MUSCOVY

(Rurikld) Grand Dukes of Moscow

1305–40

Ivan I Kalita

1350–89

Dmitri Donskoi

1389–1425

Vassili I

1425–62

Vassily II

1462–1505

Ivan III

Tsars of ‘Moscow and All-Russia’

from 1473

Ivan III (the Great)

1505–33

Vasili III

1533–84

Ivan IV (the Terrible)

1584–98

Feodor I

1598–1605

Boris Godunov

1605

Feodor II

1605–6

Dmitri I

1606–10

Vasili Shuiski

1608–10

Dmitri II

Romanov Dynasty

1613–45

Mikhail Romanov

1645–76

Alexei

1676–82

Feodor III

1682–9

Ivan V

1689–1725

Peter I (the Great)

Emperors of Russia

from 1721

Peter I (the Great)

1725–7

Catherine I

1727–30

Peter II

1730–40

Anne

1741–61

Ellzabeth

1761–2

Peter III

1762–96

Catherine II (the Great)

1796–1801

Paul

1801–25

Alexander I**

1825–55

Nicholas I**

1855–81

Alexander II**

1881–94

Alexander III

1894–1917

Nicholas II (†1918)