THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

Triumphal arch of the emperor Septimius Severus (Rome). Septimius Severus ruled 193–211 CE.

Homo sum. Humani nihil a mē alienum puto.
“I am human. I think that nothing human is strange to me.”

TERENCE (second-century BCE Roman comic playwright), The Self-Tormentor

THEORY AND PRACTICE

In most college and university catalogs, the departments of political science and psychology can be found under the heading of the social sciences, those disciplines whose practitioners observe, analyze, and formulate theories about the behavior of people in specific groups and situations, individuals in their relationship to others, and the etiology of other kinds of social phenomena. Some of the social sciences are relatively new—the term sociology was first used to mean the scientific study of society in the early nineteenth century—while others, such as anthropology, have their roots in the ancient Greek curiosity about the non-Greek world.

Latin or Greek Word	English Meaning
etia (α᾿᾿ιτία)	cause
solvo-solvere-solutum	loosen, untie, release
phenomenon (φαινόμενον)	a thing come to light; appearance; in scientific terminology, the learned borrowing pheno- = shining
socius, socii	ally, companion
theoria (θεωρία)	viewing; speculation; contemplation
modus, modi	measure, manner, way
paradigma (παράδειγμα)	pattern
schema (σχη̑μα)	form, shape, figure

ANTHROPOLOGY

It is clear that the most gold by far is in the northern part of Europe, but how it is obtained, I can not say with certainty. It is said that the one-eyed Arimaspians steal it from the griffins; but I do not believe in one-eyed men who in all other ways are like the rest of men.

HERODOTUS (fifth-century BCE Greek historian), Inquiries iii.116

Anthropology is the study of human culture in all its aspects: social organization, economic and political systems, linguistics, and prehistory. Although the ancient Greeks were intensely curious about the customs and practices of non-Greeks (whom they lumped together under the general heading of βάρβαροι), it was not until the eighteenth century that the modern discipline of anthropology began to take shape. In part, it found its intellectual origins in the ideal of the European Enlightenment— one that emphasized “reason” over tradition and taught that scientific methods could be applied to the study of human society—and in part through colonialism, which brought Europeans into direct contact with the cultures of North and South America, Africa, and Asia. It was believed by these earliest practitioners of the discipline that the origins of the structures of “modern” European society could be understood by exploring those of the cultures that they considered to be less developed, or even “primitive.”

Greek or Latin Word	English Meaning
anthropos (ἄνθρωπος)	man, mankind
barbaroi (βάρβαροι)	all who were not Greek
colo-colere-cultum	till (the soil); inhabit; take care of; practice
> colonia, coloniae	estate; settlement
ethnos (ἔθνος)	nation, people
> ethnicos (ἐθνικός)	foreign

SOCIOLOGY

Culture is roughly anything we do that monkeys don't.

Attributed to Lord Raglan, a nineteenth-century British general

Sociology, yet another product of the Enlightenment, had its origins in the attempt to apply the rational methodology of the natural sciences to the study of the social lives of people, groups, and societies. Today the discipline focuses on the study of social behavior through the empirical and systematic examination of social institutions and organizations that influence human action and cultural identity.

For if it were proposed to all peoples to choose the best customs out of all, after close examination, they would each choose their own as best.

HERODOTUS (fifth-century BCE Greek historian), Inquiries iii.38

Greek or Latin Word	English Meaning
empiron (ἔμπειρον)	experienced
organon (ὄργανον)	instrument, tool; work, project
signum, signi	sign, seal, mark
systema (σύστημα)	the whole; composition

Utopia

The social sciences sometimes make a claim for the relevance and applicability of their models to the solution of human social problems. Nevertheless, despite the efforts of sociologists, political theorists, economists, and other social thinkers, we are still faced with the paradox that our scientific study of human behavior, in all its forms, has not yet produced the ideal society. Perhaps, sadly, the sixteenth-century philosopher Sir Thomas More was correct in calling his ideal society Utopia.

Greek or Latin Word	English Meaning
plico-plicere-plicatum	fold
idea (ἰδέα)	form, class, kind
topos (τόπος)	place; topic
ou or u (oὐ)	not

ECONOMICS

He thought that there was no other kind of enjoyment of riches and money than extravagance, and that only stingy and despicable men kept a correct account of what they spent, while fine and truly great men wasted and squandered.

SUETONIUS (first-century CE), Life of the Emperor Nero

Although the ownership of real property remained the aristocratic standard of wealth until the end of antiquity, as early as the second millennium BCE, Greek merchants grew prosperous by trading with the various peoples who lived around the shores of the Mediterranean, while Greek adventurers who had hired themselves out as mercenaries brought back some of the remarkable wares of Egypt and the East. Some historians have suggested that the Trojan War, far from being a battle over the beautiful Helen, was actually a struggle over competing economic spheres of influence. The high finances of bonds, stock options, and mergers and acquisitions may have been unknown to the Greeks and the Romans, but lucrative trade, commerce, and speculative investment flourished in the classical world.

Because the land was poor, and perhaps because life at home was sometimes dangerous, sometimes dull, the Greeks often left home to seek their fortunes. Perhaps the most famous Greek adventurer was the mythical hero Odysseus; but others sought an easier and, perhaps, more profitable life in Asia Minor, the home not only of the legendary king Midas, but also of Croesus, the sixth-century BCE Lydian king who is credited with having invented money.

The conquests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE extended the Greek view as far as India; and where Greek armies went, traders and merchants soon followed. Although Alexander's empire did not outlast his lifetime, contact between East and West continued in the Roman period. The profits generated by the sale of agricultural products, such as grain and olive oil, as well as the demand for expensive luxury goods, allowed at least a few Romans to accumulate a great deal of money. The government held the monopolies on some industries; but, by and large, business was a matter of “caveat emptor.”

Those few Romans who could afford it (and some who could not) often indulged in conspicuous consumption and an opulent lifestyle. Consumer debt and fraud were probably invented by the Romans; and by late antiquity, inflation was rampant and prices sky-high. Moneylenders charged extremely high rates of interest to those who were insolvent and on the edge of bankruptcy. A coherent fiscal policy, including a budget, seems to have been nonexistent throughout most of Roman history. In order to meet its obligations (and the indulgences of its emperors), the state raised money through a variety of means, including expropriation of property; conquest; and, of course, taxation. The eventual collapse of the Roman economy is a depressingly all-too-familiar story.

Greek or Latin Word	English Meaning
copia, copiae	supply, abundance
ecos (οἰ̑κος)	house, household
as a learned borrowing in science eco-	environment
emporion (ἐμπόριον)	market
flo-flare-flatum	blow
> inflo-inflare-inflatum	swell
fraus, fraudis	deceit
haereo-haerēre-haesum	stick, cling to
lucrum, lucri	profit
mercor-mercari-mercatum	trade
and merces, mercedis	pay, wages
pendo-pendere-pensum	hang
proprium, proprii	one's own, special; fitting, proper
specio-specere-spectum	look at
in compounds, -spicio, -spicere
taxo-taxare-taxatum	tax
cf. tango-tangere-tactum	touch

Bound captive (Hadrian's Forum, Rome)

She's Worth Her Salt

Roman soldiers were given an allowance to buy salt (sal, salis), an important commodity in the ancient world, and used primarily as a preservative. The allowance was called a salarium. The word was then applied to any payment for work.

Let This Be a Warning to You

The first mint in Rome was located in the temple of Juno Moneta, so named, the Romans believed, because when the city had been threatened with invasion, the sacred geese of the goddess had warned them.

moneo-monēre-monitum = warn?

Mary Had a Little Lamb

In the ancient world, before the “invention” of money, wealth was measured by one's material possessions, especially flocks of sheep or herds of cattle. The word for “herd” or “flock” thus became the etymological root of the Latin word for “money.” That which belonged to you was your peculium (private property).

pecu = flock, herd

> pecunia, pecuniae = money

And in Conclusion, a Word from Our Sponsor

The ancient economy seems to have managed quite well without the aid of advertising, subliminal or otherwise, although some of the Roman emperors probably could have used some media enhancement and better public-service announcements to improve their image.

Latin Word	English Meaning
claudo-claudere-clausum	close
in compounds, -cludo-cludere-clusum
spondeo-spondēre-sponsum	pledge, promise
limen, liminis	threshold
medium, medii	middle; in the open; public
nuntio-nuntiare-nuntiatum	announce
imago, imaginis	copy, likeness

NAME _______________________________________________________________________

A. Answer each question or fill in the blanks with the literal meaning of the italicized word. Make sure that the sentence is grammatically correct. If you are unsure of the meaning, check your unabridged dictionary.

1. Empirical knowledge comes from __________.

2. The teacher said I was a paradigm of good behavior, a __________to be followed.

3. A systemic infection affects the __________of the body.

4. When I was absolved of the crime, I was __________ __________any blame.

5. A significant event __________ __________on history.

6. When asked to moderate her voice, she began to speak in __________tones.

7. She gave me a schematic drawing of the machine, so that I could see its __________.

8. An impecunious person has __________ __________.

9. What is the connection between a herd of cows and money? ____________________

10. Tangible results are__________ __________.

11. A mercenary individual is interested only in __________.

12. What is the literal meaning of topography? __________ __________What is its current usage? __________

13. Our tactile sense is stimulated by __________.

14. An adherent __________ __________his beliefs.

15. New York City may be called an emporium because it is a __________ of ideas.

16. In a conflation of accounts of an event, the details have been __________ __________.

17. What is the difference in meaning between appropriate (verb) and appropriate (adjective)? __________________________________________________

18. A lucrative business is one that shows a __________.

19. We now use the word mediocre in a pejorative way. What is its literal meaning? __________ What is its current usage? ______________________________________________________

20. You defrauded me of my life savings when you took them __________ me by__________.

21. What is the literal meaning of despondent? __________ __________What is its current usage? __________ Can you figure out how it came to take on this usage? _____________________________________________________________________

22. When medical science looks for the etiology of a disease, it is seeking its __________.

23. What are two different usages of cultivate? __________; __________

24. Subliminal advertising influences us by going __________ __________ of our consciousness.

25. What is the literal meaning of the term macroeconomics? ____________________What is its current usage? ______________________________

26. Where is Utopia? ____________

B. Everywhere I turn …

What are the literal meanings and current usages of each of the following words?

English Word	Literal Meaning	Current English Usage
27. subversion	____________________	____________________
28. perverse	____________________	____________________
29. reversion	____________________	____________________
30. diversionary	____________________	____________________
31. converse	____________________	____________________
32. aversion	____________________	____________________
33. incontrovertible	____________________	____________________

C. Fold in the following prefixes …

What are the literal meanings and current usages of the following words?

English Word	Literal Meaning	Current English Usage
34. replication	____________________	____________________
35. supplication	____________________	____________________
36. implication	____________________	____________________
37. complicated	____________________	____________________
38. duplicitous	____________________	____________________
39. compliant	____________________	____________________
40. explicate	____________________	____________________

D. It All Depends …

What are the literal meanings and current usages of the following words?

English Word	Literal Meaning	Current English Usage
41. impend	____________________	____________________
42. depend	____________________	____________________
43. expense	____________________	____________________
44. pensive	____________________	____________________
45. suspense	____________________	____________________
46. compendium	____________________	____________________
47. pendulous	____________________	____________________

E. It All Depends on How You Look at It …

What are the literal meanings and current usages of the following words?

English Word	Literal Meaning	Current English Usage
48. introspective	____________________	____________________
49. prospective	____________________	____________________
50. retrospective	____________________	____________________
51. spectacular	____________________	____________________
52. perspective	____________________	____________________
53. circumspect	____________________	____________________
54. perspicacious	____________________	____________________

F. Let Me Count the Change

What are the Latin roots of the following currencies?

55. the English pound	____________________
56. the Italian lira	____________________
57. the Spanish peseta	____________________